Unusual among ancient cultures because they had secular as well as
sacred
Music central to Greek Education because of ethic quality: Doctrine
of Ethos: music affects the character; different kinds of music affect
it differently
Music Theory: ethos of a melody is result of 3 factors: 1) rhythm
(combination of short and long syllables of text) 2) genus: pitch unit
was tetrachord with fixed outer notes but moveable inner notes; by overlapping
tetrachords Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems are created 3) Mode:
somewhat like raga: a group of notes but also associated melodic formulas,
rhythms, poetic forms
Early Christian Era
Church was underground for first 300 years, so knowledge is sketchy,
but we know they turned away from some old practices: avoided music for
aesthetic pleasure, for festivals and dramas; wanted to discourage pagan
practices
some borrowing is likely from Hebrew services, esp. reading from holy
books, singing psalms. Celebration of Eucharist is an early part
of service; otherwise little standardization.
Many early melodies probably are preserved in the Chant repertoire
Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in 4th century; church
was ³legal²
Late 4th century church split into Roman and Byzantine branches
Early Middle Ages
Roman church attempted revision and standardization of liturgy and
music, led to
Gregorian Chant: body of music associated with liturgical texts;
credited to Gregory the Great. He probably didnıt write any of it, but
did est. Schola Cantorum, singing school to help standardize
music.
Chant is monophonic, but can be sung in responsory or
antiphonal fashion
text setting can be syllabic, melismatic or neumatic
melodies usually very conjunct; range of melody usually
an octave or less
use of chant declined in 13th century because of rise of polyphony;
also too impersonal and undramatic
Liturgy: the framework for Gregorian chant. 2 main types of
service:
Canonical Hours or Divine Office, a set of 8 services
around the clock (e.g. Matins, Vespers)
Mass: a daily service. There is a set order to the parts; parts
that are always the same are the Ordinary; parts that vary with calendar
are the Proper
additions to both mass and office:
Tropes (troping): extra text to amplify meaning; if set to music,
often syllabic or neumatic
Sequence: extra text added to melisma e.g. at end of alleluia
Secular Music in Middle Ages (monophonic)
In Latin:
Goliard Songs: Goliards were educated but disassociated
with church. Songs about wine/women, or complaining about church/pope.
Carmina Burana and Cambridge Songs are important text sources
Monophonic Conductus: tied to religious ceremony but not liturgical.
Accompanied movements of clergy e.g. processionals, liturgical dramas
Vernacular:
France: Chanson de Geste: long epic poems sung to melodic
formulas; sung by jongleurs or menestrels (low class, uneducated
performers)
France: Troubadours and Trouveres: they wrote the songs; often
knights or upper class; songs celebrated ³courtly love²
Germany: Minnelied: even more abstract (devotional) courtly
love songs or songs about crusades or nature; often in Bar form (AAB);
Walther von der Vogelweide was most famous. This tradition taken over by
Meistersingers in 14th-16th centuries
Polyphony: based on Gregorian melodies (used as cantus
firmus). Types and written sources:
Musica Enchiriadis and Scholica Enchiriadis date from
~900; describes Gregorian melodies doubled at lower 4th (strict
and parallel organum). Voices are principalis and organalis
Micrologus (11th C.) describes more independent movement of
voices including free organum (voices donıt have to move together;
can move in contrary motion, different rhythms). Earliest organum often
found in Tropes; examples found in Winchester Troper.
Melismatic Organum has more independence of voices, Gregorian
melody is in very sustained notes, moves to lower voice (Tenor.)
Upper (Duplum) line moves faster
Notre Dame School (part of Ars Antiqua, 1150-1300): this organum
had first rhythmic sections (called clausulae, or sections in Discant
Style). More voices added by Perotin. After 1250, Notre Dame
Organum gave way to Motet: words added to upper voices; texts often
different in each voice, sometimes in different languages (polygolt)
Ars Nova (14th Century): focus is on rhythm, especially
addition of duple meters.
Isorhythmic Motet: tenor is specially constructed with recurring
pitch (color) and rhythm (talea) patterns
French Ars Nova: most important composer was Guillaume de Machaut:
wrote first complete polyphonic setting of the ordinary of the mass (Messe
de Notre Dame); some parts isorhythmic.
Italian Ars Nova: Lots of secular music, esp. madriagal, ballata;
Italians didnıt use cantus firmus or polyglot texts. Most important composer
was Landini; famous for Landini cadence, a MELODIC formula (go to
scale degree 6 before tonic)
Musica Ficta: a set of rules governing chromatic alterations
of notes: to avoid tritones, to create leading tone at cadences, or because
³it sounds good²
Instrumental music of late middle ages: instruments used to
substitute for missing voices; grouped as Haut or Bas (High/Loud or Low/Soft);
instruments also used for dance music
15th Century
English composers (esp. Dunstable) travel to continent, share English
preference for organal movement in 3rds and 6ths (instead of 4ths
and 5ths), led to fauxbourdon: parallel movement in 3 voices at
once (4th below and 6th below main melody)
Burgundian Court very strong, Guillaume Dufay (used secular
cantus firmi in mass) and Gilles Binchois are important composers; chanson
is most characteristic genre: an accompanied solo song with vocal and
instrumental sections. Music starts to have real ³harmonic-sounding² cadences
Renaissance: Sparked by 1) Fall of Constantinople (1453), 2)
invention of moveable type (1454). Characterized by secularism, humanism.
Emphasis is on aesthetic pleasure. Two main periods: early Netherlands
and late Italy
Netherlands: main trait is imitation two or more voices
with same motivic material, stated in succession.
Ockeghem: experiments in canon, canons at any interval, double canon,
etc.
Obrecht: experiments with imitation; alternated imitative and chordal
sections; strong harmonic sense
Josquin: ³Greatest of Netherlanders.² In addition to imitation, he
was very interested in text setting, and his music had very seemless, continuous
texture
Instrumental Music
instruments grouped by similar tone quality in chests or
consorts; composers writing idiomatically
composers began to transcribe/arrange vocal works for instruments;
new arrangements would contain idiomatic instrumental writing. Example:
chanson (vocal) is arranged into canzona (instrumental). Keyboard
canzona leads to fugue in Baroque; ensemble canzona leads to trio sonata
Italian Vocal Music: Madrigal: most important vocal genre of
Renaissance
Through 16th century, madrigal becomes more expressive, dramatic, higher
quality poetry; texture more imitative and more chromaticism; also more
voices added (5 becomes standard)
Texts mostly about love; set phrase by phrase in sections.
Important composers: Marenzio, Gesualdo
Madrigal Comedy: set of madrigals related by plot or similar
theme; might be acted out on stage. Usually light, humorous entertainments
English Madrigal: Italian is model; Musica Transalpina
(Music from across the alps) is published in England 1588: inspires English
composers. English madrigal has less chromaticism, not as high quality
poetry as Italian; often humorous
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Martin Luther 1517 drafted 95 Theses, calling for reforms
in Church, esp. parts of service in vernacular, more music and participation
of congregation in music
wrote new parts of service (although much preserved); inserted Kirchenlied
or Chorale (congregational hymn) into service. These were monophonic,
easy for congregation to sing; sometimes borrowed melodies from Greg. chant.
Other Protestant Churches:
Calvinists changed service more than Luther, banned singing
other than psalms
Anglicans simplified service, set fewer parts to music
Counter-Reformation: Catholic church alarmed by loss of followers
(and revenue). Council of Trent (1545-63) addressed problems, suggested
reforms. Some musical reforms: simplify polyphony so words can be understood;
no instruments in church; no secular cantus firmi.
Music of Palestrina conforms to intent. very conservative style:
simple counteroint and melody, very diatonic. His music is model for study
of 16th century counterpoint