The Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians:

Forest Resource Relationships 1700-1900

Daniel M. Heth

Skip to Section

Introduction

The Red Lake Band of Ojibwa (1) Indians reservation is located 30 miles north of Bemidji, Minnesota. Their territory once encompassed millions of acres from northern Minnesota, east to Devils Lake, ND, and south into Wisconsin. The reservation is now less than 300,000 acres. Timber resources provided food, shelter, medicines, clothing, weapons, transportation, and cooking materials. My research will concentrate on Ojibwa Forest Resource History, from 1700 to 1900, with an emphasis on treaties that divided the landscape creating what we now know as Minnesota.

The Struggle for Minnesota

Due to treaties in later years this wide expanse of land would be greatly diminished by the year 1900. The Ojibwa often had deadly encounters with neighboring Sioux and Dakota war parties that fought for the fertile lands. (2) According to Roufs the Ojibwa-Dakota wars began in 1736 when a party from La Pointe attacked a Dakota settlement in retaliation for the Dakota’s killing 21 Ojibwa allies. Fighting continued into the early 1800’s, but the Ojibwa already controlled the entire northern section of Minnesota. The main turning point was in 1745-46 when the Ojibwa defeated the largest Dakota settlement with the help of rifles and gunpowder obtained from fur traders. “The only manner in which the Ojibwa could harass and dislodge them from (their earthen lodges), was to throw small bundles or bags of powder into the aperture made in the top of each…the bundles ignited by the fire, spread death and dismay amongst the miserable beings who crowded within…the Dakotas were still ignorant of the nature of gunpowder, and the idea possessing their minds that their enemies were aided by spirits, they gave up the fight in despair and were easily dispatched” (Roufs). Normal Ojibwa war confrontations were over in a day or less, The Battle of Kathio lasted for three days, the length illustrates the magnitude of this confrontation. There were some Dakota that lived to start a new village, but in 1770 the Ojibwa drove them out in the Battle of Crow Wing.

The other geographically significant battle came on an early morning raid when the Ojibwa attacked and killed 335 Dakota near the fork of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. The Dakota were still inadequately armed and were driven off quickly. The battle yielded a forested area between La Pointe and the Mississippi river that the Ojibwa used as a safe haven from Dakota raids. From 1740-1750 the Dakota suffered numerous defeats in North-central Minnesota that forced a retreat that moved them all the way west of the Mississippi.(Roufs) Sporadic fighting continued into the 19th century but paused in 1825 with the American “recommended” Treaty of Prairie du Chien.

The Treaty of Prairie du Chien was delegated by William Clark and with the promise of extravagant gifts and American trade factories, boundaries were negotiated. However, all the Ojibwa were not present so agreement came after the Fond du Lac (1826) and Butte de Morts (1827) treaties were completed. Peace lasted for one year until the Ojibwa ambushed the Dakota near Fort Snelling causing Dakota retaliation a year later with an attack upon an Ojibwa chief during a visit. The Americans captured and turned over the guilty parties to the Ojibwa. 1 In the morning two guilty parties were brought to the Ojibwa under a son of Flat Mouth, one accepted his fate and received quick death (3) , while the other ran and was soon captured and trampled on by Sioux and Ojibwa alike…” cowards were subjected to every species of indignity.” 2

According to Sultzman the late 1700’s brought movement of the Ojibwa across all of Minnesota and in 1792 the Ojibwa permanently settled at Red Lake. Ojibwa that moved west of Minnesota came to be known as Plains Ojibwa. Some fighting did continue into the early 1800’s that only fueled Ojibwa hatred for the Sioux. In July of 1832, a meeting with Schoolcraft and Allen, Chief Flat Mouth of the Leech Lake band told his side: “it was decreed by the Great Spirit that hatred and war should ever exist between the Sioux and themselves; that this decree could never be changed; and the Chippewas must ever act accordingly.”

History

In 1806, a British fur trading post was established near Red Lake and brought in goods and materials never seen by the Chippewa. (4) The relationship between Indians and Traders was built by respect and gratitude. 4 Life with the traders brought about changes in Indians lives. Traders married Indian wives as cultures began to mix. Farming tools acquired via trade with the British increased agricultural productivity and the Red Lake Indians began to “master” agricultural practices. According to Mittleholtz, by the mid 1800’s reports came out of the Indian villages from Indian Agents (sent by the U.S. government) telling of crop yields and quantity never before seen back east. In fact they were so efficient that during some winter periods they would take in starving families because of there surplus of food previously stored. Little did the Chippewa know that the Sioux were now the least of their problems.

In 1839, D. P. Bushwell, Sub-Agent at LaPointe, Wisconsin reported on the lifestyle of these Indians back to the capitol as well as population. The populations of Chippewa’s at Red Lake were 70 men, 90 women, and 130 children for a total of 290 Chippewa’s. 5 Reports going back to the capitol contained information on culture, lifestyle, and most importantly...natural resources. Timber and mineral products dotted the landscape surrounding pristine Red Lake. U.S. leaders sought raw materials like timber, copper, and iron ore to fuel western expansion and engaged Indian leaders to push for land acquisitions. 6 In 1853 D. B. Herriman, the new Ojibwa agent stated that:

Government agents never seemed to stay longer than a few years at most, and with every new incoming agent that meant there was a different description of the people, life-styles, resources, and a new view from the government. The U.S. saw the potential economic value of the property and wanted to exercise control over this wealth. One of the first steps was the building of a school in Red Lake in 1850. (5) Shortly thereafter the Indians began seeing greater yields and attendance at the school was increasing. At these schools the girls were taught knitting, sewing, and cooking while the boys sharpened their ability to work with tools. Mittleholtz went on to say about Herriman; It is interesting to note that he also calls for, and urges the establishment of manual-labor schools where book education should have little attention. He urged that the children be taught the use of tools and be put in various shops to learn anything useful; that they learn to wash, bake, knit, make soap and candles, to reside in houses, sleep in beds, eat at tables on plates, with knives and forks; and in general he asked that their culture be changed. Finally, he suggested, "Let books be a secondary consideration, except to those who are too young to handle tools." 8

The government built schools where boys could become master loggers and then in the future they would be the ones taking down the timber resources once utilized by their ancestors. They had given them the necessary tools, now all they needed was to put those acquired skills to work.

Land Cessions and Treaties of the 1800’s

Treaties made during the 1800’s changed the scenery of Minnesota forever. These treaties called for the removal of most Pine species and later, the extraction of minerals. Attempts at gaining land from the Ojibwa didn’t come with ease. The Ojibwa were very adamant about keeping the land they had lived on for more than 200 years. As Indian agents continued to spread word of lavish amounts of natural resources not being utilized, the push to acquire land got heavier and harder. Officials that worked out treaties with the Indians often misrepresented (or left out completely) true facts that lead to future grievances between the two (Mittleholtz). The problem was, that the number actually at negotiations was not a very good representative of the population. For a treaty to pass male members 18 or older voted and the treaty passed if voted for it. Of the near 3,000 neighboring tribe’s people, the total voters in 1864 did not exceed 300 males, but it did pass! However, two such members not present at this time were Chief Moose Dung and Chief Red Bear. When news of this was heard the two chiefs sent delegates to mitigate and ratify the treaty early in 1864, the same year the Indian agent at that post was replaced. (Mittleholtz) This victory, however large it may have seemed at the time was only a delay of future land and timber cessions.

Ojibwa Land Cessions

Between the years of 1781-1927 there were more than 50 land treaties or agreements signed with the U.S. and Canada. 9-10 This isn’t counting the many more number of ratified or changed agreements during the same time. Each treaty signed was important but there were some that ceded large amounts of land and resources. With each treaty signed the Ojibwa were pushed farther north.

1. Treaty terms particularly favored traders.
2. It opened lands for future white settlement and commercial development.
3. Attempt to “civilize” and to “Americanize” Indians through education and the promotion of farming.
4. Complete disregard of Ojibwa concepts of property and land-use.
5. Officials also labeled Ojibwa groups as “bands”.
6. Allowance of Indians outside of said territory into negotiations to cede land of other Ojibwa peoples.

In many of the payments maid farming tools were often a major percentage. Through payment of farming equipment the U.S. wanted to turn Indians into farmers and “civilize” them. “The U.S. believed that it was a great melting pot, and believed Indian culture could not—and should not—survive contact with civilization” (Roufs). Whites thought much of the Indian land was being “wasted” and not utilized correctly. Whites saw this fertile soil and only imagined what they thought the land should be like.

The attempt to remove all Indians finally gave way with the continued uproar from the Ojibwa. Instead of removal the U.S. decided to allow reservations to be formed where the Indians could go to live.

Forest Resource Utilization

The Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians utilized forest resources extensively in their daily lives. Most of the time it was the women of the clan that gathered and processed timber materials, however men usually took care of making canoes (Lyford). Wood products were integral to nearly every product that they used. This section will concentrate on some materials the Ojibwa made out of available forest resources.

Ceremonies played a major role in the maturation and life of the Ojibwa. To indicate a ceremony had taken place at a certain location totem poles were located at the front entrance and sometimes evergreen trees were pruned so that only the top branches were left. 14 Mide drums or water drums (a sacred instrument) were only used in Midewiwin ceremonies. These drums were made out of the trunk of basswood. “A section of the trunk is removed, hollowed out, and near the bottom a partition is made and glued in with pitch so that it is watertight.” 15 (For more information on drum making look to Lyford’s book on Ojibwa Crafts). Tambourines, drums, and other musical instruments were used only for important ceremonies or dances. Wooden flutes were another instrument that was made by the Ojibwa out of ash, cedar, and box elder. The wooden flutes or “pipigwans” were used to woo the maiden of a lover’s choice (Lyford, 32). Frances Densmore also tells of the flute being used during war time as a warning or signal of approaching danger to the village 16 . Other materials such as: cord and twine, snowshoes, bows, birch bark charts, and many others were also used on daily basis.Cord or twine were integral parts of the Ojibwa economic life since they were used in many of their crafts. Cord was made from the fibers in the stalks of the false nettle, and the bark of basswood, white cedar, and slippery elm.

Birch-bark rolls were used to record teachings of the Midwiwin, good hunting/fishing/collection areas, stories, and even maps. Figures on the rolls were engraved with bone stylus, and the lines filled with vermillion (Densmore, 89). Often the stories told were of great importance, such as the story told by Nawajibigokwe. A picture she drew illustrates the scourge of smallpox that broke out near her father’s grandmother’s village. The epidemic had a great toll on her village with very few surviving. Many, because a medicine man known as Nanibawi (Standing still) “crept down to the river and lay his body in the water and his head on shore, he called to the people saying, “See I have turned into a great snake with horns. I extend far into the water.” He called to his wife and children to come into the water and rub against his body, saying that if they do this they will recover” (Densmore, 182). Needless to say some villagers followed what he said and rubbed against him in the water, and washed themselves thoroughly. Some thought he was crazy and had nothing to do with it. But, those who followed his directions lived through the disease. (6) Birch-bark rolls served as a way of recording history and passing on stories of old…to younger generations.

Canoes were essential to the Ojibwa way of life. The Ojibwa used canoes as a source of transportation and to keep up trade relations. Canoes were hollowed out using fire, then lined with birch-bark and sewed together with wigob and gummed with pine, balsam, or tamarack pitch (7) (Roufs).

Forest Resources used for Shelter Construction

An enormous portion of forest resources went towards the construction of homes or short term shelters. The effort that went into these shelters was usually determined by how long they would live at that location. Much of the Ojibwa life was formed around moving from area to area, either for food, harvesting vegetables, or on the war path. Tanner tells of the yearly Ojibwa cycle; “Before the non-Indians arrived, the Ojibwa followed a yearly cycle of fishing; hunting; collecting maple sap; gathering nuts, berries, and medicinal herbs; growing corn; and harvesting rice. With the change of each season, they moved to the area best suited for performing one of the necessary tasks”. 17 Wigwams, tipis, dance shelters, sweat houses, maple sugar camps, and ceremonial shelters were all built out of available forest resources, with the dance hall being the largest of the structures built. Sweat houses were used to cleanse one of sickness and also for maturation purposes. Sweat houses used for maturation were very small single person sweat houses. Twine and cord made from basswood, red cedar, and elm bark were used to tie main supports together. Usually birch or elm bark was used to shed rain (Mittleholtz).

Wigwams were the mainstay of Ojibwa shelters. “A wigwam could be constructed in less than a day with materials readily available in the woodlands. Ojibwa men first placed raw wood saplings in the ground, creating an oval measuring approximately 14 x 20 ft. While they pulled the saplings together in arches, women tied the framework with wood fibers. Then the family placed birch bark over the structure and covered the doorway with an animal hide.” 18 When it came time to re-locate for hunting season the Ojibwa rolled up the outer covering and left the wooden frame.

Hunting Tools

Hunting was integral to the survival of Ojibwa families, because of this, bows and arrows were worked on rigorously. “The Ojibwa hunted primarily deer, moose, bear, fox and wolf, but also took porcupine, beaver, muskrat, otter, mink, and others (Roufs). Elk was also hunted until the 18th century when they were driven to extinction. Ancient bows of the Ojibwa were made of a flat piece of hickory or ash that was tapered at the ends. Ironwood, maple, pine, and red cedar were used for arrows that could travel up to 500 ft. (Roufs). According to Lyford the length of the bow was determined by the distance from the point of the shoulder…across the chest to the end of the middle finger of the opposite hand.

Tools used for hunting allowed the Ojibwa to provide for their families and helped promote accurate shooting that was needed during war times! This all changed when the Ojibwa received powder and rifles from traders in the mid 1800’s, but archery never completely died out.

Agriculture

According to Roufs the Ojibwa cultivated various crops such as: corn, squash, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, rice, and tobacco. Blackhawk was quoted as saying; “the quality and quantity of the crops that were produced was due mainly to the fertile soil”. Trading with British Fur Trades began in the early 1800’s, bringing new farming tools that increased crop yields (According to Indian Agents). I believe the yields seen pre-trader era was still very good; however, the more efficient tools and vast numbers of incoming settlers and loggers lead to an increase in total area being farmed. Additionally, excellent harvesting and storing techniques permitted them to survive long and arduous winters. Birch bark storage containers buried in the ground helped preserve valuable grains 19 . According to Lyford; women usually spent a good portion of each summer day constructing storage containers from birch bark. Birch bark containers were used to store maple sugar and many other things.

Another semi-domesticated crop was maple sugar. Maple sugar ( si-si-ba-kwat ) was a more than just something to eat, “it symbolized good relations between people and harmony between people and the natural and super-natural worlds”. 20 Sugaring was an integral part of the harvest year. Sugar maple camp homes were usually made of horizontal elm pieces, ironwood supports, and the inner bark of basswood ( wigob ) to tie it all together (Roufs).

After establishment on the reservation, agriculture and farming played an enormous role in Ojibwa life. Life was dependant on the ability to grow and harvest crops efficiently and effectively. This is part of the history which shaped the culture of Red Lake.

Summary

The Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians survived for more than 200 years on this land. Over the course of hundreds of years the Ojibwa perfected methods to remove forest resources and convert them into required materials. “Normal” life for the Ojibwa became quite different with the signing of land cessions from 1781-1927. After the U.S. entered Ojibwa territories through treaties and land cessions, previously forested pine lands were changed forever. To this day, the Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians still reside in their self-governed reservation.

Works Cited

1 Lee Sultzman. http://www.tolatsga.org/ojib.html

2 William W. Warren. HISTORY OF THE OJIBWA NATION, (Ross and Haines Inc. Minneapolis, MN, 1957)

3 Minnesota Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs Alexander Ramsey to Commissioner of Indian Affairs Luke Lea, November 3, 1851, CIA 1851, p 153; Schoolcraft, Schoolcraft’s Expedition to Itasca , 110. From Edmund Jefferson Danziger, Jr., The Chippewas of Lake Superior , Volume 148, The Civilization if the American Indian Series , 1979, University of Oklahoma Press.

4 Ronald N. Satz. Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin’s Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective . (Transactions Vol. 79, #1, 1991)

5 Erwin F. Mittlehotlz (History of Red Lake and the Vicinity)

6 Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission. http://www.glifwc.org/
pub/sandy_brochure.pdf

7 E. F. M. (History of Red Lake and the Vicinity)

8 E. F. M. (History of Red Lake and the Vicinity)

9 List of Canadian treaties from Indian and Northern Affairs , Canada. Maps and additional information , including “ selected treaties from the National Archives of Canada .”

10 list of U.S. treaties compiled by the Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 927 15th Street, N.W., Suite 612, Washington, D.C. 20005, May 1974

11 Thomas Peacock and Marlene Wisuri. Ojibwe, Waasa Inaabibaa , We Look in All Directions. (Afton Historical Society Press, 2000)

12 Indian Country (http://www.mpm.edu/wirp/ICW-110.html#related)

13 THE FOURTH WORLD DOCUMENTATION PROJECT, Questions and comments on FWDP can be addressed to, John Burrows jburrows@halcyon.com, P.O. Box 2574, Olympia, Wa. Fido Net 1:352/333 :: :: 98507-2574 206-786-9629, USA The Quarto Mundista BBS

14 Carrie A. Lyford. Ojibwa Crafts. (Stevens Point, WI.:
R. Schneider, 1982), 20.

15 C.A.L. Ojibwa Craft

16 Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 1867-1957, 132

17 Helen Hornbeck Tanner. Indians of North America. The Ojibwa. D’ Arcy Center for the History of the American Indian, Newberry Library. Chelsea House Publishers, 1992.

18 H.H. Tanner (Indians of North America)

19 C.A.L. Ojibwa Crafts

20 Timothy G. Roufs. The Anishinabe of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe. (Indian Tribal Series and The Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, 1975)