Significance of Black Maple 

to the Great Lakes Chippewa

Julie Benda

Skip to Section

Introduction

The hardwood maple tree plays a significant role in the Chippewa culture. The sugar maple (Acer saccharum) produces a sacred staple to the Chippewa, maple sugar. However, common knowledge of the maple and its use does not extend far beyond this. There are, in fact, many uses of hardwood maple that contribute to its importance, and other species besides sugar maple have such quality. By taking a closer look at the historical geography and forestry of the Great Lakes region, and deeper examination of the ethnobotany of the southern Chippewa and Bois Forte Chippewa tribe, we will come to understand the role of the black maple.

There are several maples known to the general public. Sugar, silver, box elder and red maple are a few that are widely recognizable. Their frequency is rather high in the Midwest and their classification is quite simple. There are also many other species and subspecies of maple, many of which are found in smaller, very distinct niches of the country. Black maple is arguably a separate species of the genus Acer. When not given this title, it is most often classified as a subspecies of Acer saccharum, the sugar maple. For the purpose of this paper, Acer nigrum's classification is as a separate species.

Acer nigrum is a unique species of maple that produces sap. It is the only species of Acer that has a concentration of sugar in its sap comparable to the sugar maple. Both have a concentration of sugar that ranges from two to three percent. The ideal time to tap the tree and harvest this sap is in the early spring (usual) or late winter (possible), when the sap is at its richest. The sap is boiled down to produce maple sugar. Other maples produce sap as well, but none have as high a concentration. Because the yield of sugar after boiling is so much smaller than the initial amount of sap collected, (8 lbs/40gallons) a one percent drop in sugar concentration means producing about fifty percent less sugar per pound of sap. That is why lower concentration trees are rarely used for sugar and syrup making.

The black maple is also unique because of its wood. It is also the only other hardwood maple found in the Midwest, giving it a number of qualities that ensure its use by Native American tribes. Hardwood maple (often called hard maple) is very resistant to wear, and has a high tolerance for abrasion. It also has excellent steam-bending properties, useful in shaping and straightening the wood.

Identifying the Black Maple

Identifying Acer nigrum from its close relative Acer saccharum is something that might not find much use in today's world. Cataloging differences between the two may only prove to entertain a serious botanist or forester, but during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries plant identification was much more important. Tribes of early America found much of their sustenance through the gathering of plants.

Similarities and Differences

Similarities of the trees include many basic features. However, much of the time there will be slight differences that take a trained observer to notice. First, these trees are relatively similar in growth, the black maple usually growing faster in its early stages, and then slowing down. Both trees typically grow 60-80 feet high, but “These trees are capable of living far beyond 200 yrs, reaching trunk diameters of greater than 30 inches, and heights sometimes reaching 100ft” (Gabriel). Their horizontal branch growth extends a little differently; the black maple grows a wider canopy rather than a taller, straighter one like that of the sugar maple. Second, they are both very tolerable of the shade and need moist, well-drained soil. Valleys and rivers are ideal, while black maple can grow in especially wet regions. Both grow in pure stands or amongst other species (Slabaugh).

More obvious differences between the black and sugar maple include physical characteristics of their bark, leaf and twigs. Black maple bark tends to be darker and more deeply furrowed, but the best way to distinguish the black maple from a sugar maple would be to examine the leaves. They are 3-lobed and often very droopy, a major contrast from the crisp, 5-lobed leaf of the sugar maple. During the autumn, black maple leaves also stay a deeper hue, changing from a dark green to a dark golden. Sugar maple on the other hand tends to have a brighter more vibrant pigmentation. Twigs of the black maple also have a prominent feature; their surface contains small warty growths known as lenticels, which are not nearly as noticeable on sugar maples. At the base of the leaf petioles, leafy stipules occur, and their buds are often more hairy (State of Vermont).

Differences beyond the exterior are even less noticeable. It is hard to say whether sugar content is significantly more or less because it fluctuates for both trees based on environment more than species. It is also difficult to determine if tribes were able to differentiate between these two species, but it is highly possible they had such intelligence. Most likely, the black maple was used in similar if not exactly the same ways as the sugar maple, seeing as it gave similar products.

Distribution

As mentioned earlier, Acer nigrum, also know as “black maple”, is a species of maple very similar to the sugar maple (Acer saccahrum). So similar in fact, that it is common to find a hybrid of the two. Many authors and foresters alike will acknowledge this tree as a distinct species, though its truth is widely disputed. In arguing that it is independent, biologists, foresters and geographers take a closer look at the distribution of black maple, and compare it to that of the sugar maple.

The range of black maple expands from southern Quebec to Minnesota, then south down to Virginia and Maryland (Slabaugh). Its distribution varies throughout this expanse, tending to favor the Lake States area of southern Wisconsin, much of Iowa, and northern Illinois (State of Vermont). This is because the black maple adapts extremely well to the drier climate of the mid-west prairies, even better than the sugar maple. It is in these climate regions, with forests made up of American beech, yellow-poplar, basswood and sugar maple, that the black maple is common (State of Vermont). In addition, there are very conducive habitats for black maple in parts of northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. In these regions the small percentage of black maple population will frequently hybridize with the nearby sugar maple. This results in some difficulty discriminating between the two.

Acer nigrum's dispersal is throughout the Midwest and Canada, while the forests that are currently most abundant with them are in southern Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa. We can determine that this is mostly due to the favorable environment created by glaciers. Such areas subject to glacial movement resulted in prairie land; conditions that were ideal for black maple growth. However, these conditions are also in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. According to the Forest Soil-Climate-Site Index Relationships for Minnesota; “Glaciated conditions prevail in north central Minnesota. Materials from three glacial sources and several glacial lakes make this area unique. Glaciers moving into the area from the northwest carried nutrient rich grayish materials containing limestone and shale pebbles from the lime and clay-rich sedimentary bedrocks and older glacial debris common in the Red River Valley. Soils formed from these materials are some of the most productive in the area. That productivity is based on the high level of lime, nutrients and water holding capacity in many root zones” (University of Minnesota).

Such areas of glaciation created soil conditions which were very supportive of the hardwoods slow growth. Although it prefers an acidic soil, it grows densely in regions with a plentiful supply of lime (Slabaugh). This again means that traditionally it is more abundant in the western regions of its natural distribution, but also that areas of northern Minnesota and Wisconsin provide necessary growth needs. Besides the advantage of lime deposits, the only preference this species has is that the soil must be moist and well drained. With this condition fulfilled, Acer nigrum is very capable of growing in anything from sandy to clay soils (Plants for future). The sugar maple (being a hardwood) has similar needs; but the black maple is more dominant in moist soils of river bottoms (Gabriel). The need for well drained soil correlates well with the knowledge that it grows in its greatest concentrations near streams and rivers, and along the slopes of valleys (Slabaugh).

Having some knowledge of the black maple’s distribution is quite helpful in understanding its specialty and its function in the woodland forest. Knowledge of the Great Lakes Forest history is just as important, factors may have changed the trees’ distribution over time. These factors have a great impact on their use by Indian tribes. The locality and movement of the tribes, tree dispersal, and changes in the landscape will all help determine when and how the black maple was useful. From this, it will be easier to understand the significance the black maple had in the tribes’ culture.

Great Lakes Chippewa Habitation

The Chippewa belong to the Algonquian language group. They inhabited much of the Great Lakes region. They are interchangeably referred to as Chippewa, Ojibwa, Ojibway, and Anishnabe. They are considered to be the largest Indian group of North America. According to Vernon Kinietz, in the early days of the English regime (probably around the 1770's) their population was estimated at approximately 25,000-30,000 (Kinietz). The Chippewa were found mainly surrounding Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. Their geographic range included most of the Upper Peninsula, Northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, Northern Michigan, and Canada surrounding Lake Huron and Superior. Their migration pre- eighteenth century was westward along the shores of Lake Superior, adapting to the cool climate region that was North America. Even with continued movement set off during the colonial period, through the nineteenth century, various Chippewa tribes stretched across the border of Canada, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. These areas are not congruent with the black maple’s distribution of today, but ethnohistory suggests that their movement started in regions of eastern Canada (Ontario) and continued southwest into Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. After settling these regions, the Ojibwe were rather sedentary, their typical dwelling being a wigwam, but by the late 1800’s, this was not as common. Some clans, after being forced from their lands, started using teepees in order to lead a more nomadic lifestyle. Eventually, after government land cessions and treaties, these people were dispersed to designated reservations, spotted throughout the Midwest. Some of these locations are supporting black maple growth currently.

The relationship of outside tribes would be another historical connection that may have influenced the Chippewa’s proximity to the black maple. The Ojibwa speak a Central Algonquian language and have close relations to the Ottawa and Potawatomi. The three bands are frequently recorded to have migrated together, supporting each others war and peace operations. The Ojibwa, Potawatomi, and Ottawa Indians are members of a longstanding alliance also called the Council of Three Fires. This alliance was created to withstand the attacks of the mighty Iroquois Confederacy and the Sioux, eventually defeating both (Clifton, Cornell, McClurken). This is an important factor because there are several documentations referring to the movement of the Potawatomi and Ottawa southward into northern Iowa and Illinois. “Ottawa’s first made the Chicago region their home in the mid-1700's, when they and the Chippewa’s Ojibwas joined the dominant Potawatomi’s in making villages along the Illinois River and its tributaries. While the Ottawa and Chippewa in Illinois maintained distinct ethnic identities, they became socially and politically Potawatomi. United States officials called the Illinois River Indians the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, Potawatomi of the Waters of the Illinois” (Clifton, Cornell, McClurken). Helen Hornbeck Tanner also describes this Union, in her book Great Lakes Indian History Atlas. In it she describes the migration; “The continued influx of Michigan Potawatomi, along with Ottawa and Ojibwa, increased the regional Potawatomi division identified by the federal government as the 'United Band of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi.' From this group emerged a coalition of influential leaders, several of mixed heritage, who supplanted traditional Potawatomi village leaders as tribal representatives in treaty negotiations during the critical years 1829-1833” (Hornbeck). Tanner also brings up the treaties that occurred between 1829 and 1833. Tribes of Ottawa, Potawatomi and Ojibwa signed many of these treaties.

The close relation and affects that each tribe had on one another means that Potawatomi and Ottawa movement plays a significant role in the Ojibwa distribution, Movement of these tribes continued, and by 1830, Illinois was the homeland to one half of the Potawatomi nation. There were 40 Potawatomi villages, due mainly to the migration of Ottawa and Ojibwa from southwestern Michigan, which took root along the Chicago River. All three tribes tended to settle near bodies of water, frequently being those of rivers and tributaries; ideal locations of dense black maple populations.

That is why it is important to look beyond the common demographics of the tree and tribe, and explore the possibilities where such an exchange could occur. A better understanding of the Potawatomi and Ottawa migration helps to open doors that can further lead to a connection, as well as remembering that black maple dispersal has a range beyond its “ideal” locations. Changing landscape and forest history may be the key to understanding this even further.

Forest History Of Chippewa Territory

Even though it is likely that there were bands of Great Lakes Chippewa living in woodlands or prairie with black maple forest, the fact remains that the main location of Chippewa Tribes, past and present, encompass a region that overlaps little with distribution of black maple today. It is especially incongruent with the higher density black maple forests, which seem to fall south of the Chippewa range. Nonetheless, it is important to remember that black maple does not currently grow exclusively south of the Chippewa Territory, nor may that have been the case dating back to the eighteenth century.

Environmental Factors

To note, the northern Minnesota county of Saint Louis, as well as the St. Croix County of Wisconsin, both currently have records of black maple forests (USDA NRCS). This leads us to believe that there could be a link in the history of the forests there. Two women, conducting a study of the habitat suitability of white sage, an Ojibwa sacred plant, make valuable remarks pertaining to the history of the forests the Ojibwa used: “The history of this region, both natural and human, has dramatically affected its present day plant geography. Glacial forces transformed most of northern Wisconsin, some of this change occurring as recently as 10,000 years ago. In their retreat, the glaciers left a patchwork landscape of till, outwash, and loess deposits, all of it riddled with lakes and wetlands. These historic geologic events changed the soil composition and moisture regimes of this region, influencing the formation and distribution of the native plant communities. Human history further modified the plant geography of this area. Today, it is difficult to determine the exact composition of this landscape before European contact. Little of what is termed 'the original vegetation' is extant today. However, analyses of the original land surveys and the few remnants of old growth forest can give us a glimpse of this vanished world. Coupling this theory of original vegetation composition with a comprehension of the forces that shaped and altered it can provide information to help us understand the composition of the current vegetation” (Doran, Enright). Considering the landscape and geography of the Great Lakes region, it is possible that the black maple was a victim to the circumstances that Enright and Doran spoke of. Much of the northern parts of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota were, too, subject to glaciations. They also have climates and soil conditions that are conducive to the growth of the black maple. Rivers and streams flow widely throughout the Great Lakes region, and the chillier climate has little effect on the cold-hardy black maple. Furthermore, much of the land that was considered Chippewa territory was ceded in the mid 1800’s, not long after which, much of the forests encountered heavy logging.

Changing the Landscape;
Logging, Mining, and White Settlement

The logging boom of the Great Lakes region occurred during the fifty years after the civil war (Mahaffey). It was said that the greatest timber cutting of the century, accompanied with complete preference for present over future yield, resulting in the great forests of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota being clear-cut beyond what was practiced anywhere else in the United States (Mahaffey). Such a high demand for pine drove the logging companies into a frenzy. White pine was abundant, large, and extremely light weight, making it easy to transport. It was the primary cause of growth in the industry, settlement, and economy throughout the Great Lakes states. As does with most industry booms in US history, the pine began reaching exhaustion by 1890. However, this was no end to the great logging capital. A report on the utilization of the Lakes superior region states that; “Large-scale cutting of inferior species, hardwoods, and trees of small diameter were also indications of a change in operations. In some areas the taking of hardwood in quantity began as early as 1876, and by the early nineties many mills were processing hardwoods exclusively” (Mahaffey). Town growth and farmers also played a large role in the deforestation of these areas. After the land was logged for pine, farmers would continue to clear plots of land for crops.

There were three main treaties signed in order for the United States to fully and “legally” dive into logging these areas, all of which were ceded with help from Chippewa tribes. The Land cessions of 1837, 1842, and 1854 combined to displace the majority of the Ojibwa. In a study on the Ojibwa’s history of sustainability it is noted that “The Great Lakes Ojibwa ceded territories which span an area encompassing a section of northern Minnesota, part of Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and nearly all of northern Wisconsin. The Wisconsin ceded territories extend east from Douglas and Burnett Counties, to part of Marinette County; south from Lake Superior to a jagged line cutting through Polk, St. Croix, Dunn, Eau Claire, Clark, Wood, Marathon, Portage, Shawano, Menominee, and Oconto Counties” (Enright, Doran).

One of the most important treaties made with the Chippewa was the Pine Tree Treaty. This treaty had significance because in the agreement of ceding their lands to the government, they fully believed that included continued use of the lands for its hardwoods, hunting, gathering, and rice. Their persistence to insure this access is stated in the second chapter of Ronald N. Satz’s book, Chippewa Treaty Rights: “Although the 1837 Chippewa treaty did not for example specifically mention anything about reserving the right to make maple sugar, the reference to the maple trees in 1864 by various Chippewa bands is understandable given the number of times the Indians mentioned making sugar during the proceedings in 1837 and given Dodge’s promise to discuss the matter with the president.” Because maple sugar occupied such a large role in the Chippewa culture; being important in commerce and in diet; there was no reason for them assume that maple sap collection wasn’t included as part of their unsulfactory rights to continue “gathering upon the lands” as was said in article 5 of the 1837 treaty (Satz). Unfortunately, the pine treaty, like many others, did not turn out as the Indians assumed. The logging boom brought settlers in from the east, clearing tracts of land for farming, and disrupting the former Chippewa territory with roads, towns and even mines.

The effects of such deforestation were tremendous. Enright and Doran put it plainly: “Logging in the Great Lakes region, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, had three main influences on the forests: 1) a change in the age and size structure, 2) a change in the relative abundance of different species and a loss of old growth, and 3) a change in the locations of forested habitat and an increase in fragmentation” (Enright, Doran). A minority species such as the black maple could have easily suffered the same effects.

It is interesting to note as well, that, in a 1995 publication by the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission called “Plants Used by the Great Lakes Ojibwa”, there were 14 general types of habitats that were ceded by the Ojibwa. Several of them, although not mentioned specifically, were locations supportive of black maple. They include: Northern Mesic Forest: Closed canopy and mesic. Dominated by sugar maple. Loss of yellow birch, hemlock, and white pine since logging. Boreal Forest: Closed canopy and mesic. Dominated by balsam fir, white spruce, white cedar, white birch, aspen, and red maple. Extensively logged. Prevalent along Lake Superior, and Floodplain Forest: Closed canopy and wet. Found primarily along riverbanks in the southern part of the ceded territories. Dominated by silver maple, box elder, American elm, and green ash (GLIFWC). All these areas once belonged to the Chippewa, all were logged extensively, especially after the civil war, and each habitat mentioned here most likely supported forests with black maple growth. Today, much of the ceded territory is farmland, or used for commercial logging after replanting. It is easy to say that if a minority species of maple were to go undistinguished by the white settlers, and wiped out in the logging boom, that it may never have much of a chance returning to the area. If this were the case, then the only hope to further investigate is through the ethno botany of the tribe itself.

Black Maple Ethnobotany

The best connection there is to the black maple’s use by the Great Lakes Chippewa lies in the botanical databases of the University of Michigan. Here there are cited records of the Sugar and black maple’s use by the Chippewa. Sugar Maple has a plethora of uses amongst several different tribes, and the black maple is mentioned much less frequently. But because the properties and structure of the sugar and black maple are so similar, it is very possible that the black maple was useful in all the same ways as the sugar maple. To help this theory, there is one tribe that provides us with the link of the black maple’s use to the even the most northern tribes, The Bois Forte.

The Bois Forte Band of Chippewa is located in northern Minnesota, where they inhabit five bases of land established in the Treaty of 1866. They include: Nett Lake Reservation—which is glacially formed, Lake Vermillion Reservation, Sugar Bush (appropriately named), Indian Point, and Deer Creek. Dr. Albert B. Reagan, a geologist and ethnologist, worked for the U.S. Indian Field Service. His work focused on the Nett Lake reservation, and in 1928 he published an article in the Wisconsin Archeologist, called “Plants Used by the Bois Fort Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians of Minnesota.” In this article he specifically references the black maple, separately from the sugar maple, with its uses expanding from tools, to toys, to sugar. His records give significant evidence of its use, and its interchangeability with the sugar maple. To further support such importance, American anthropologist W.J. Hoffman uncovered an even more surprising use of the tree while studying the “Grand Medicine Society” of the Ojibwa. In his report he noted that a decoction of the inner bark was used by the Ojibwa to treat diarrhea, while at the same time being a reliable diuretic.

The Role of Sugar

Sap collection took place in the late winter/early spring when the Ojibwa claimed that the spring rain feeds the trees. During this period the entire family works together at a sugaring camp, or otherwise known as the “sugar bush.” At this location other families accompany them in tapping trees, building huts, and boiling the syrup. This syrup, along with the collection process, was especially sacred to the people of the Chippewa. The boiling down of the sap further eventually produced a sugar, which yields about eight pounds of sugar for every forty gallons of sap. This meant that literally tons of sap was to be collected in order to make a sufficient amount of sugar for the entire year to come.

According to Francis Densmore, the Chippewa used the syrup extensively for seasoning and preservation of foods. “A staple article of food was wild rice, which was seasoned with maple sugar. It was used in seasoning fruits, vegetables, cereals and fish” (Densmore).

The sugar had many uses; it was found in medicines, drinks, cakes, gifts and ceremony. Also because of its high value it had frequent use in trade. Several ethno-botanical databases state that this sap was made into sugar and used as a commodity of intertribal commerce (Gilmore).

Maple sugar was the Chippewa’s primary source of seasoning. Without the salt found on the Atlantic coast, the Chippewa were in need of such a bountiful additive, and maple sugar fit the landscape. In Canada, where there were fewer maples, Chippewa tapped birch trees. However, the sap of the birch was not nearly as delectable, nor did the sap of these trees run as long. That is why Acer saccharum, and Acer nigrum are preferred. Long seasons, with high sugar concentrations are by far the most efficient for large quantity production. The White Oak Society of Deer River, Minnesota again notes the importance of the sugar; “It was a favorite food of both the Anishinabeg and voyageur. It was a topping for rice, berries and pemmican, and a flavoring for many other foods. It took the place of salt in the Native American diet before salt became available, and was a source of quick energy for canoeing. It was also an important bargaining item of the Ojibwa” (White Oak).

Sap and Wood

Maple tree tapping was an important part of the sugar bush, but besides making sugar, a sweet seasoning, the sap of the tree made vinegar, after letting it sour (Smith). The mix of these two cooked with meat gave it a unique flavor, unlike much of what else they were familiar. It also flavored drinks; according to Densmore, maple syrup dissolved in water was a cooling summer beverage. And when boiled with medicines became pleasing syrup fed to children. (Densmore) They frequently mixed it with other decoctions and infusions to make a better taste.

Adding the syrup to medicines was also very common not just for taste. Because of the syrups viscosity, it was perfect for coating a sore throat. Other medicinal uses include treatment for diarrhea, and even though it was a practice of the Iroquois, the sap can be fermented into an intoxicant (Moerman).

Hardwood maple is a type of maple that had many useful properties. Foremost, it is an excellent source of fuel. The hardwood burns slowly and for a very prolonged period of time. The wood can used be for making bows, arrows, and other hunting tools. Bows formed easily because of the steam-bending properties and high elasticity. The branches were excellent in making arrows because hardwood maple is very sturdy and generally straight-grained. Also, the wood undergoes an intense shrinking over a long period of time. This is helpful in creating many different tools, and gives it the ability to be quite practical. The high resistance to wear and abrasion meant that it was perfect for making bowls and other objects of utility, such as paddles for sap and rice stirring. Since there is relatively no taste left from the wood, it was preferred for all types of cookery.

Besides being functional, the tree was able to serve a material and ceremonial purpose. The inner bark of the tree, after rotting and some decay, could be boiled to create a brown dye that was used on fabrics and clothing. Reagan has also recorded the use of the black maple’s root to make the bowl for the children’s dice bowl game.

Further uses may still be unknown. There are records of sugar maple use by tribes other than the Chippewa, those of which include even more applications of the tree. From this information it is possible to speculate that black maple had other purposes in Chippewa Culture.

Conclusion

It takes a serious review of history, forestry, ethno botany and culture to determine the black maple’s significance to the Great Lakes Chippewa. Only a compilation of them all makes it possible to understand the relationship. Black maple holds significance in being the only other hardwood maple the Chippewa could access, and more importantly it produces a concentration of sap that is usable in making syrup and sugar. The Chippewa culture relied heavily on the sap; for seasoning, sugar (used for flavor and commerce), medicine, and vinegar. They spent an entire month, solely on the collection of this sacred commodity. They used the wood for fuel, utensils and hunting tools, while the rotted inner bark created a brown dye for clothing.

The relationship between the Chippewa and black maple is best understood with knowledge of present-day distribution and of forest history. Environment conditions, Indian migration, and ethno botany also help decipher where and when both paths were crossed. European settlement and landscape change give a clue to the current dispersal of the two, and explain the change of availability over time. From all this, it is possible to understand that the role of the lesser known minority, black maple, had its place in Chippewa culture. It is a tree that provides the same important resources as the sugar maple, and therefore has a high significance to the tribe.

Works Cited

Clifton, James A., George L. Cornell, and James M. McClurken. 1992. People of the Three Fires. The Michigan Indian Press. Grand Rapids, MI.

Densmore, Frances. 1974. How Indians use wild plants: For Food, Medicine and crafts. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.

Enright, Rachel; Doran, Caitlin. “Habitat Suitability of an Ojibwa Sacred Plant- White Sage. Department of Geography University of Wisconsin Madison.” <http://solimserver.geography.wisc.edu/axing/teaching/geog578/projects/y2003/
SacredPlants_Enright.htm> (accessed March 10, 2007)

Fern, Ken; Morris, Rich. “Plants For A Future: Database Search Results; Acer saccharum nigrum”. 1996. <http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Acer+saccharum+nigrum> (accessed March 5, 2007)

Gilmore, Melvin R. 1933. Some Chippewa uses of Plants. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. (p 135)

Hickerson, Harold. 1974. Chippewa Indians III: Ethnohistory of Chippewa of Lake Superior. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.

Hickerson, Harold. 1974. Chippewa Indians IV: Ethnohistory of Chippewa in Central Minnesota. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.

Hoffman, W.J. 1891. The Midewiwin or "Grand Medicine Society" of the Ojibwa. SI- BAE Annual Report #7 (p. 199)

Kinietz, W. Vernon. 1940. The Indians of the western Great Lakes, 1615-1760. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Mahaffey, Charles G.; Bassuk, Felice R. 1978. Images of the Cutover: A Historical Geography in The Lake Superior Region, 1845-1930. University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Moerman, Dan. “Native American Ethnobotany Database.” University of Michigan-Dearborn. 2003. <http://herb.umd.umich.edu/>

Reagan, Albert B. 1928 Plants Used by the Bois Fort Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians of Minnesota. Wisconsin Archeologist 7(4):230-248 (p. 234)

Satz, Ronald N. 1991. Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin’s Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective. Madison: The Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Slabaugh, Paul E. 1958. Silvical charctaristics of…Black Maple. Lake States Forest Experiment Station (66).

Smith, Huron H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bulliten of the Public Museum of Milwaukee 4:327-525 (p394)

State of Vermont, Department of Forest Parks and Recreation. 2002. Maple Field Guide. <http://www.mapleinfo.org/htm/resources_fieldguide.cfm> (accessed March 1, 2007)

United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS) “Plant Profile” Plant Database. <http://plants.usda.gov/
java/nameSearch> (accessed March 5)

University of Minnesota. “Communication and Educational Technology Services.” University of Minnesota. <http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/
naturalresources/components/6062b.html> (accessed March 10, 2007)

White Oak Society. 2007. Wild Plants and Their Uses. White Oak Society, Inc. <http://www.whiteoak.org/learning/GilQ.shtml>.