Created by Kym Buchanan | http://KymBuchanan.org | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.
Summer 2004
Class: CEP 931 Qualitative Methods in Educational Research
Instructor: Steve Weiland, PhD
College of Education, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, USA
In his short story "Harrison Bergeron," Kurt Vonnegut envisions a dystopian future. "The year was 2081, and everyone was finally equal." Extraordinary individuals like Bergeron are artificially handicapped to ordinary. The story is an allegory for an extreme of social justice: minimal difference between individuals for maximal harmony. As an educator, "Bergeron" is a cautionary tale: it quickens my commitment to celebrate diversity and let extraordinary students excel. But both "Bergeron" and Spellbound also elicit my unease about competition.
Competition is widely valued outside education. It's the explanatory frisson of many models, including evolution and capitalism. Competition is central to many entertainments, including computer games and professional sports. The value of competition is seldom questioned except in education, where it has fallen into disfavor. Cooperation is the popular paradigm for teaching and learning. Under that paradigm, the Scripps Howard Spelling Bee is an anachronism: a celebration of difference in the stark terms of solo performance and single elimination. For those who like continuums, the Bee is opposite "Bergeron." Extraordinary individuals are encouraged to surpass their peers, failure is absolute, and there can be only one champion.
Spellbound offers the stories of eight spellers, and a chance to answer some questions about competition and individual differences. What motivates the spellers to compete? How do they make sense of the competition? How does the experience change them? By grappling with these questions, I hope to bait the "larger" questions: What is the nature of competition, and what are the implications for well-meaning educators? I start with some theory, then briefly tell each speller's story, and finish with some advice for teachers and parents.
As Udvari and Schneider explain, competition "can refer to both a situation and a personality trait." (2000) These are independent variables: an activity may or may not be competitive by design, and the participants may or may not behave competitively. The Bee is competitive by design. But while all spellers compete, they approach and depart the competition with different dispositions.
Educators can't control the personalities or intentions of students, but certain activities foster more or less competitive behavior. Some traditional education structures have fostered competition (e.g., grading on a curve). But in concert with rising concern about student diversity (e.g., special needs), competitive structures are waning in popularity.
Individuals aren't created equal. Education should help students maximize their potential, neither handicapping the extraordinary nor humiliating the disadvantaged. The research on competition is far from conclusive, although it resonates with the popular sentiment in education. That is, "most of the developmental and educational literature on competition portrays it as having negative consequences for achievement, relationships, creativity and task enjoyment." (Udvari and Schneider, 2000) Instead, educators are encouraged to adopt cooperative and collaborative classroom models (e.g., group projects, Jigsaw, Reciprocal Teaching).
We should be wary of absolutes. While the business world may be touting teamwork, schools still risk fanciful insularity by tacking too far toward cooperation. Academic and professional careers are personal and competitive. Students receive final grades as individuals. Students are admitted to college as individuals, or may be denied admission. As adults, they will compete for jobs and promotions. Their companies will compete in the marketplace, probably through aggressive marketing and innovation. At its best, scholarship is a competition of arguments and evidence. Students need to learn how to deal with winning and losing, because they will experience it many times. (Udvari and Schneider, 2000) Losing lets students learn about their weaknesses, and may motivate them to improve.
Spellbound is pre-positioned in this debate. The Bee is very competitive, so only the spellers can vary in their natures. Background and self-concept are critical variables in how individuals behave competitively, or not. "Individuals do not experience competition and competitiveness in the same way." (Udvari and Schneider, 2000) For example, competitive individuals can be task-oriented or other-referenced. (Ibid.) If the goal of education is self actualization (and I hope it is), then a task-oriented disposition is more desirable. In other words, students should focus on the curriculum and not their class ranks. In either case, examining competition leads to a fundamental issue in education: motivation.
In its defense, competition is described as "an energizing factor for learning and a striving for the personal best." (Feldhusen et al., 2000) A caveat: competition seems to impel different motivational effects for different students. (Ibid.) Just as dispositions can be cleaved as task-oriented or other-referenced, broader motivational theory distinguishes extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Spellers who focus on doing better than others are extrinsically motivated; spelling is only a means to an end. As Cropper and others argue, extrinsic motivation decreases intrinsic motivation. "Students tend to concentrate more on the prize involved in winning and are less inclined to develop cognitive skills." (1998) Instead, students should focus on mastering a task by improving their own performance.
While motivation impels competitive behavior (or not), attribution is making sense of success or failure. For example, a speller may partially attribute failure to a pronouncer's error, or to not practicing enough. Motivation and attribution is a cycle, sometimes a vicious one. Certain attributions foster or diminish future motivation. If individuals believe chance, caprice, or native intelligence controls an outcome, they are discouraged. If individuals believe persistence and appropriate strategies control an outcome, they are more motivated. (Stipek, 1996) Attribution is a powerful part of learning that receives little formal attention. While athletes use post-game analyses and soldiers use mission debriefs, most students stop thinking about their performances once they receive grades. Unfortunately, Spellbound offers minimal screen time of the spellers processing their failures.
Competition is a form of interaction with others, in and beyond a specific competition. Disposition matters, as do climate and culture. For example, Udvari and Schneider found that students who were "other-referenced in competitive style were considered aggressive and were disliked by the majority peer group." That is, students "do not enjoy spending time with a child who turns everything into a contest and brags and boasts when victorious." (2000) Likewise, the spellers' social networks are important: parents, teachers, peers, school, and community. These networks influence how the spellers experience spelling, the Bee, and competition in general. In the Bee, the interpersonal dimension of competition is subtle, since only one speller performs at a time. There aren't the cutting rebuttals of a debate, or the vicious spikes of a volleyball game.
The spellers come from different backgrounds and exhibit a variety of dispositions. Their individual experiences with the Bee as unique as they are. Yet their stories share common threads which reveal much about the nature of competition and its effects on individuals.
Harry is one of the most extroverted spellers, although he's almost incoherently nervous when interviewed. When he spells, he exhibits tremendous stress and discomfort. He also demonstrates self-talk, almost as a soliloquy. He uses multiple strategies. These strategies are ritualized and used by many spellers: asking for the word to be repeated, asking about the language of origin, asking for the definition, repeating the word back several times. This emphasizes the competitive nature of the Bee: there is a competitive structure, and it can be "gamed" to some degree.
Harry studies with his mom, although with little practice or planning. He was first out in a 4-5th grade bee. Apparently that failure motivates him to keep trying. But neither his background nor intrinsic motivation seems to compel the monkish dedication of some other spellers. Harry demonstrates strong self analysis skills, especially when he attributes his failure: "He did pronounce it wrong even though I did make my worse guess."
Ted is a newcomer to spelling. Like many of the spellers, he's somewhat isolated by his unusual ability. "It's kinda hard to make friends when no one can understand what all you can do," he explains. "There a couple smart kids in my grade, but not many." His peers "like using simple words," and one young man only talks about trucks.
Ted's teacher also sees him as different, and hopes that the Bee will help Ted see there are other people like him, and that there are places he can fit in. Ironically, success at the Bee would offer limited prestige in Ted's daily life. Perhaps this meager extrinsic reward means Ted has greater intrinsic motivation to be competing at all. Ted does have the strong support of his parents, who "tried to raise 'em that, Try. If you do it, great. If you don't... just roll on."
Ted says, "I don't think I'll win, but I'm going to try hard anyways. It would be funny to win." His mom confides that Ted "plays to win." When Ted misspells a word, he looks annoyed.
Neil's relationship with the Bee is overshadowed by his dad, and by his family's fierce focus on preparation. His dad develops a sophisticated strategy for studying and for spelling, including multiple coaches, a computer, and meditation. Neil's family reinvents the Bee as a family endeavor, and a parable for character development. Neil's mother explains, "When you fight in a war, everybody has the same goal." Neil's dad: "What is valuable in life that is easy to achieve? Nothing."
This is competition at its purest, and perhaps its ugliest. It evokes the uneasy overtones of child beauty pageants: is the competition really about the children? Neil barely speaks on camera. What he does share is mildly worrisome. After a preliminary victory, "I was seeing white flashes. I don't know why. I guess I was too happy or something."
Neil does seem to learn about setting and achieving goals, although he seems to have little agency in the experience. He has a huge burden of extrinsic pressure: 1000 people are chanting and praying for him: "a lot of hungry people in India who could be fed if Neil wins."
Emily is the most articulate about competition by far. She's been to nationals multiple times. Her mom says it was Emily's choice to compete. Emily explains:
I do it because... I don't know, my competitive side kinda comes out. Um, I don't love spelling. I do it 'cause I want to compete, I want to say, Hey look at me. I'm good at this. 'Cause I ride with people who better than me, and I sing with people who are better than me.
This is other-referenced, extrinsic motivation. Yet in daily life, Emily is "wary of sounding too smart." She admits that she doesn't remember the meanings of most of the words she studies.
Emily's family is warm and supportive. The trip to the Bee "was a family thing... It was nice," says Emily. Her parents are very thoughtful about the Bee and its effects, joking that it may be "a different form of child abuse." Her father: "I think it's a peculiarly American tradition. Competition is... a more important part of an American children's upbringing than a European child's."
Emily is thoughtful about her past performance, while feeling "like I would disappoint people if I didn't do as well as I did last year." She's candid about her ambitions. "Obviously, I'd like to win... I don't think that's realistic."
Emily seems to make her peace with competition. "There's so much luck in it... You can't not be nervous. It's too scary." At the Bee, she skips a trip and meals to study. But, "if I get out early, I'm going to be like, a little bit of relief: Oh, it's over. I don't have to do this again. I can be a normal kid."
For Angela and her family, just competing in the Bee is an accomplishment. It represents her family's new life in the United States. That same spirit of independent self-improvement is evident in Angela's self-taught, self-invented preparation (e.g., making crossword puzzle). Angela seems like one of the happiest spellers. She's the only speller interviewed with friends. She writes her friends' names on her flash cards: "If I see that name, and it's right next to the word, I kinda think that she's cheering me on." Angela is relatively casual in her appearance and interviews. Perhaps rather than being other-referenced, Angela doesn't really appreciate the lives of other spellers. At a regional bee, Angela is somewhat oblivious to the handshake offered by runner up.
Competition is stressful but not scary for Angela. It's welcome color in her rural life. She competes with joy and restrained energy. "I'm a little nervous right now, but I think that's natural." If she won, she'd be "ecstatic." When she misspells a word, she seems to take it well: "I thought it was right. Man! ... I kinda feel relieved... But I think I will kinda miss it." Angela demonstrates a healthy task-oriented disposition and conscientious attribution. "I already feel like a champion, just getting here. ... I think that's enough, because a lot of people don't even accomplish that."
April zealously prepares for the Bee: 8-9 hours per day in the summer, 5-6 hours during the school year, and flash cards when she has a free moment at softball practice. "I think I worked pretty hard, maybe a little too hard." Her family shares her focus: "Our lives have revolved around April and the spelling bee," says her mom, although her dad urges April to "lighten up" and go out with friends. Her mom confides her hopes for April, describing an old dictionary as "Smithsonian material."
April quietly battles with the stress of competition. She fails in her dreams. "I've pretty much always had a pessimistic attitude. ... I don't really expect to win." Her dad worries about her. "It's more intense than any competition. ... one letter, and you're out." But when she misspells a word, April's dad makes sure she knows that, "I wouldn't be any happier if she won."
Nupur is very solemn, when studying at her computer or playing the violin. After misspelling a word last year, she announced, "I'm coming back next year. ... I know what to do. I'm gonna work." Like Neil and Angela, she connects spelling with American opportunities and hard work. "My parents were pressured heavily to succeed. ... You don't get any second chances in India, the way you do in America."
Nupur's parents and teacher are proud of her. Her dad tries to help her deal with the competition. "This is not the most important thing in life, to be the best speller in the world." As the champion, Nupur is uniquely qualified to evaluate this advice.
Nupur's peers get some camera time. A trio of boys offers grudging respect (and perhaps a little infatuation). "She acted like she was not nervous," one scoffs. They all remember the words they misspelled.
Ashley is the underdog. She was raised by a single mother, and has two uncles in prison. Her teacher complains that Ashley was disadvantaged by Bee organizers. A bomb threat disrupts a preliminary Bee. Ashley is philosophical about it all: "My life is like a movie... I go through different trials and tribulations and then I finally overcome."
Ashley is loved by her mom and her teacher. She feels isolated in her daily life, but seems to reject pity. The Bee doesn't seem to dominate her life (as it does Neil or April's). "I was determined I was going to win the citywide spelling bee." And if she loses at the Bee, no worries: "it'll be OK because I'll be upset for a little while and then I'll rise above it." When she does misspell a word, Ashley cries.
These spellers' stories illustrate the extraordinary talents and needs of gifted students. In many cases, their teachers report that their talents and self-discipline extend far beyond spelling. They vary in how they reconcile spelling with the rest of their identities. Teachers and parents can help such students, if they can understand them better.
In everyday life, "gifted students may attempt to hide their skill." (Udvari and Schneider, 2000) Cropper reports that gifted students often have high intrinsic motivation. (1998) Such motivation may be a sharp contrast to extrinsic disincentives. At least some spellers feel isolated by their extraordinary nature. In school, they may be teased or ostracized. Yet adding extrinsic rewards may be detrimental to fostering talent. For example, students who focus on their Grade Point Average (GPA) may avoid challenging courses to avoid low grades. (Cropper, 1998) Instead of extrinsic rewards, teachers and parents should look to the intrinsic motivation some spellers exhibit, and nurture that kind of inner drive. Extrinsic motivation should be used in moderation (e.g., social pressure).
Ironically, the Bee itself offers the best suggestion. After Angela gets "wheedle" right, the pronouncer looks very happy and amused, then composes himself. In the interest of fairness, the Bee officials should be dispassionate. Everyone else around the spellers is sincere and affectionate. The more brutal a competition, the more caring teachers and parents should be.
Caring adults should guide students in distinguishing between other-referenced and task-oriented goals, and focus on the latter. "Doing your best" is not a cliché: it's a mantra for task-oriented goals compelled by intrinsic motivation. Adults should emphasize improvement over winning. Nupur told herself she would work harder: not to beat other spellers, but to simply do better. Self evaluation and thoughtful attribution are valuable skills that students may need help learning. Students should be guided in gauging for themselves whether they meet their own expectations. (Udvari and Schneider, 2000) Finally, teamwork is a happy medium between competition and cooperation. While the spellers compete as individuals, they are coached and supported by family and teachers. Adults should help students feel some autonomy and responsibility, while always seeing their networks of support.
Spellbound is an insightful, provocative documentary. Coupled with contemporary thinking about competition in education, the spellers' stories suggest how teachers and parents can help similar extraordinary students. However, such advice should be taken cautiously. While any qualitative research has limits, Spellbound has particularly tremulous support for my conclusions. For example, attribution is poorly explored by the filmmakers, but central to understanding motivation. Despite my sweeping characterizations, the stories themselves sometimes seem little more than sound bites and glimpses (especially Neil and April). I struggle to see the Bee through the spellers' eyes, and compensate by recruiting eight of them.
Nevertheless, this is important work. Educators are being urged to charge in the direction of cooperation, away from competition. They should at least examine what they're abandoning. Simultaneously, competition is becoming a popular idea in school reform, e.g., merit pay for "better" teachers, funding cuts for "failing" schools. We must make sense of competition, and find its rightful and righteous uses.
Finally, I've only hinted at my own prejudices in this area. As an advocate for teaching using games, I have qualified enthusiasm for competition. With my relatively low socioeconomic background, I wonder if other people also guiltily root for Neil to fail, given all his advantages and his father's smug charisma? And I'm struggling to find a written voice that both honors and honestly evaluates the spellers. I find myself retreating behind jargon, a problem I describe as, "Why have a 'difference' when you can have a 'disparity?'" For me, this paper is only the beginning. Only after I wrote it could I see the paper that I actually wanted to write.
But I reiterate my belief that this is important work. The Bee and competition in general are powerful events in students' lives. We should not fear that power, but we should better understand it. Above all, we should celebrate the extraordinary, we should carefully value competition, and we should help extraordinary students achieve their potential.
Cropper, C. (1998). "Is Competition an Effective Classroom Tool for the Gifted Student?" Gifted Child Today Magazine 21(3): 28-31.
Foreman, J. (2003). "Next-Generation Educational Technology versus the Lecture." Educause Review 38(4): 12-22.
Stipek, D. J. (1996). Motivation and Instruction. Handbook of Educational Psychology. D. C. Berliner and R. C. Calfee. New York, Macmillan Library Reference USA, Prentice Hall International: 85-113.
Udvari, S. J. and B. H. Schneider (2000). "Competition and the Adjustment of Gifted Children: A Matter of Motivation." Roeper Review 22(4): 212-216.
Vonnegut, K. "Harrison Bergeron." 1961.
Welch, S. (Producer), & Blitz, J. (Producer/Director). (2002). Spellbound [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia Tristar.
Created by Kym Buchanan | http://KymBuchanan.org | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.