sources is pertinent to
achieving the objectives of the project. The
literature review will describe three of the project�s primary foundations:
the history of Wisconsin conservation, interpretation of the past, and visitor
studies. These three topics are
intricately linked together, and a background in each is essential for
understanding the goals of the project.
Please select from the following sections:
The Conservation Movement and its Leaders
The primary goal of this project is to interpret the movers and shakers
in Wisconsin�s conservation history. To
truly interpret their stories, however, one must possess a general understanding
of the significant events and changes that have occurred in Wisconsin throughout
time. By understanding the context
of the time, people can gain a greater appreciation for the contributions made
by Conservation Hall of Fame inductees.
A Brief History of Conservation in Wisconsin
As the fur trading era ended in the early 1800�s, a new resource was discovered that dramatically increased immigration into Wisconsin. In the southwest corner of Wisconsin called the �driftless area,� the only area not covered by the last glacier, lead ore was found in abundance near the surface of the earth. People flocked to this area in hopes of gaining an easy fortune. By 1836, when Wisconsin became a territory, the mining boom was in full swing. Toward the end of the 1840�s, the miners picked away the last of the easily accessible lead. Some of the displaced miners rushed off to California in search of gold, while others remained in Wisconsin to farm.
After the mining years, agriculture became the major economy in Wisconsin. Encouraged by the inexpensive and fertile land, many more immigrants arrived in Wisconsin to work the land. Wheat was by far the king of the crops. Wisconsin was the major producer of wheat for the United States until about 1871. During this time, trees from Wisconsin�s vast forests were being cut to help build the growing cities of the nation. The towering pine trees of the Great Lakes states, especially the white pines, were chopped down by rough and hardy lumberjacks. This period of Wisconsin�s history represents the ultimate in natural resource exploitation. The barren lands of cutover stumps and debris created a perfect fuel source for major wildfires, like the great Peshtigo Fire of 1871. By 1900, the majority of the state�s forests had been felled.
The second era of Wisconsin�s conservation history is �The Awakening Years� from 1867 to 1899. During this brief period, a few visionaries saw the need for natural resource conservation. In 1867, the Wisconsin Forestry Commission was established to address the concerns of forest depletion in northern Wisconsin. Wildlife species, like the bison, elk, cougar, passenger pigeon and wild turkey, had disappeared from the state. A Board of Fish Commissioners was established in 1874 to create fishing policies, and a state fish hatchery was developed two years later.
The third era in the conservation history of Wisconsin is �The Progressive Era in the Conservation Movement,� and it lasted from 1899 to 1915. During this period, President Theodore Roosevelt was leading the entire country in the conservation movement, influenced by both Gifford Pinchot, a utilitarian forester, and John Muir, a wilderness preservationist that had spent his boyhood in Wisconsin. Under the leadership of governor Robert M. La Follette, major contributions to Wisconsin�s conservation movement were made. Policies concerning natural resources were developed by citizen boards and commissions. In addition, the university became the scientific advisor to the state.
During this era, the first hunting
licenses were put into effect (1897), a 40,000-acre forest reserve was created
and a forestry commission was appointed to oversee it (1903), and E.M. Griffith
became the first State Forester (1905). Governor Davidson created the nation�s
first Conservation Commission in Wisconsin.
The commission was strongly opposed to the wasteful exploitation of
natural resources in the state, and recommended legislation that would prevent
this waste.
According to the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame Exhibit Plan, the turn of the century marked an important shift in Wisconsin�s economy. The economy shifted from one that was largely agricultural, to one dominated by machines and industry. This gradual shift began to spark new threats to the environment.
�The Conservation Era� in Wisconsin�s history lasted from 1905 to 1949. During this active period, major programs formed that would guide Wisconsin conservation to the present day. Conservation education started in 1912 when Warden E.A. Cleasby spoke in schools and farmer�s institutions. The forestry program was drastically expanded, which included more money for forest fire control. In 1925, the Nicolet and Chequamegon National Forests were established in the state. In addition, the Forest Crop Tax Law provided farmers with incentives to grow trees on their land.
In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt formed the Civilian Conservation Corps to relieve the serious effects of the Great Depression. The men of the CCC camps worked on soil erosion projects, created trails, and developed a variety of park structures. Water pollution bills were passed in the late 1940�s, which were essential to cleaning up the polluted streams of the state. In 1949, A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published, which explored the links between the environment and the quality of life.
The final era of Wisconsin�s conservation history, is �The Environmental Decade,� which started in 1960 and continues to the present day. During the 1960�s, citizens began to rally against the continuing environmental degradation. Rachel Carson published her book Silent Spring in 1960, which warned against the dangers of DDT. Wisconsin was the first state in the country to ban the use of DDT in 1969. In 1967, the conservation department and pollution department were combined to form the Department of Natural Resources.
During the 1970�s, a multitude of laws were passed that protected natural resources in the country. Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson proposed the first Earth Day, which was celebrated on April 22, 1970. During the next few years, environmental impact statements were required in Wisconsin (1974), PCB manufacturing and sale was banned (1977), environmental education was updated (1977), the office of Endangered Species was created, a few rivers were designated as Wild and Scenic (1972), and three wilderness areas were designated in the National Forests.
In the past twenty years, Wisconsin has continued to be a leader in environmental legislation. Tough groundwater protection laws were passed in 1982, and acid rain legislation was passed in 1986. The Wisconsin Recycling and Solid Waste Law was passed in 1990, as was the Environmental Education Act. Wisconsin will likely continue to be a leader of innovative and effective environmental protection laws in the future.
Although these many historic events are impressive in themselves, it cannot be forgotten that people caused these events to happen: people that had visions, people that devoted their lives to the conservation movement, people that joined others to achieve a common goal. The interactive computer project will focus primarily on the people who were essential in creating these changes throughout the centuries. The people are also the sole reason that the Conservation Hall of Fame was created.
The Development of a
Conservation Hall of Fame
conservation history. Throughout
the ages, Wisconsin has been a pioneer in the conservation of our natural
resources. �[The] progressive
ideas and programs have been accomplished through the continuing efforts [of]
streams of leaders in the conservation field.
These individuals have exhibited wisdom, foresight, and perseverance, and
have gained support of the Wisconsin citizenry� (Exhibit Plan, 3).
Early visionaries of the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame recognized
the importance of environmental leaders in the state.
They hoped to eternalize the significant individuals that helped
Wisconsin and the nation progress toward natural resource conservation, by
teaching the public about the lives of these people.
The rationale behind the creation of a conservation hall of fame was obvious, but the location of this new facility was less clear. The founding members of the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame Foundation wanted to build the facility in a central area of the state, where a potential audience could be realized. Stevens Point seemed to be the natural choice. Since the city is close to the geographic center of the state, it has gained a major convention and tourism economy (Exhibit Plan, 9). The University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point College of Natural Resources is also the oldest program of its type in the nation. Lead by foresight and wisdom of Fred Schmeeckle, UW-SP was the first school to offer a conservation education major, which was the foundation of the College of Natural Resources. The university also owns a 275-acre natural area called the Schmeeckle Reserve, which has the mission of maintaining and enhancing natural communities within its borders for educational and recreational purposes. The central location of Stevens Point and its commitment to natural resource protection convinced Foundation members that the city was ideal to house the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame.
Once the location was decided upon, the next task of the Foundation was to decided where in Stevens Point the Hall of Fame would be built. Instead of developing a new facility from scratch, the Foundation members decided to team up with the Schmeeckle Reserve Visitor Center, which at the time served as the trailhead and information center for the natural area. The Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame Exhibit Plan describes several reasons why this choice was made (10-11). First, the visitor center was easily accessible by all major transportation routes. Second, the existing structure already contained many of the physical facilities that would be needed by the Hall of Fame, like bathrooms, drinking fountains, and electricity. Third, the visitor center was currently in operation, so as soon as the Hall of Fame was built, it would be open to the public. Fourth, the programs offered by the Schmeeckle Reserve were compatible with those that would be offered by the Hall of Fame. The missions of both places complemented each other. Fifth, the operation and maintenance of the Hall of Fame would be of minimal cost, since the Schmeeckle Reserve already employed administrative and maintenance staff, graduate students, work-study students, and had easy access to natural resources professionals. Finally, the Hall of Fame would have increased visitation by individuals using the Schmeeckle Reserve.
Missions of the Schmeeckle
Reserve and the Hall of Fame
1. To demonstrate Conservation Hall of Fame inductees� contributions to the conservation of Wisconsin and American resources.
2. To detail Wisconsin�s resource development history.
3. To encourage visitor participation in the conservation of Wisconsin�s resources.
1. To detail specific conditions that led each inductee to their commitment to the conservation movement.
2. To show how the inductee�s attitudes and ideas were significantly unique for their time.
3. To outline major career contributions of each inductee.
4. To place the contributions of the inductees against the chronological events of Wisconsin history.
What is interpretation?
Another widely accepted definition of interpretation was introduced by Freeman Tilden. In 1953, Tilden, an experienced author, playwright, newspaper reporter, and observer, was invited to analyze the interpretation occurring in the national parks. After four years of study, he published a landmark book called Interpreting Our Heritage, which was the first book to define the interpretation profession. His book defines interpretation as �an educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, or by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information� (Tilden 8). He admits that definitions are too limiting when trying to describe interpretation, and so offers two concepts that expand upon the overall definition. The first is that �interpretation is the revelation of a larger truth that lies behind any statement of fact.� The second is that �interpretation should capitalize on mere curiosity for the enrichment of the human mind and spirit� (Tilden 8).
Although the various definitions contain different words and concepts, the underlying meaning is the same. Primarily, interpretation is more than providing information to the audience. Leading visitors on a hike through the forest and teaching them the scientific name of every plant is not interpretation. More specifically with the computer kiosk project, providing people with a list of Hall of Fame inductees and the significant events they accomplished is not interpretation. Factual information alone is not interpretation, although it is the foundation upon which true interpretation is built. Interpretation is revealing the meaning behind the factual information. If a naturalist tells the scientific name of a plant, and then explains or shows why it received that name, interpretation is starting to occur. Interpretation involves not just the informational parts of the brain, but also the emotional and sensory aspects.
Later in his book, Tilden describes interpretation of the past, which the computer kiosk project will attempt to accomplish. Following the same lines as the definitions, he suggests bringing forth the thoughts and feelings of the people, not just what they accomplished in life. Despite barriers that may exist, interpreters must bring the past into the present (Tilden 69). In addition, he describes three types of interpretation that are effective in bringing the past to life. They are demonstration, where the audience watches an individual do a historical activity, participation, where the audience gets to do a historical activity, and animation, which refers to the atmosphere of the place�the sights, sounds, and smells that immerse the visitor in a historical setting (Tilden 75-76). Although not a historical activity directly, the computer kiosk will allow visitors to participate. The computer kiosk will also strive for a historically immersive experience, using sounds, music, and images of the time to link visitors with the history.
So what exactly are exhibits? Like �interpretation,� many definitions for exhibits have been created, and a single definition is often too limiting to adequately describe the essence of exhibits. John Veverka in his book Interpretive Master Planning broadly describes exhibits as �arrays of cues purposely brought together within defined boundaries for a desired effect.� He differentiates normal exhibits from interpretive exhibits by saying that �[interpretive exhibits] make the topic come to life through active visitor involvement and extreme relevance to the everyday life of the viewer� (124). Sue Murphy in her article �Notes on Exhibit Techniques,� defines exhibits as �a form of communication�the visual presentation of not only objects, which may or may not be beautiful or rare, but also of related interpretive materials, in order to communicate information and ideas to the viewers; in addition, it frequently has a �purposeful� story to tell� (201).
Ron Zimmerman and Dr. Michael Gross in their book Creating Successful Exhibits for Visitor Centers skip definitions of exhibits altogether, and instead define three things that exhibits do. First, exhibits show things. The selected concepts should not be so complex that they cannot be shown visually. Second, exhibits communicate. Exhibits are the means by which exhibit designers communicate ideas, emotions, and information with the visitors. As such, it is important that exhibit designers are well aware of who their audience is. Third, exhibits provide experiences. To the visitor, what he or she does and feels is just as important as what he or she learns.
Many sources identify strategies that will make exhibits more effective. These strategies will be followed closely when designing the computer kiosk for the hall of fame. According to Sue Murphy, a successful exhibit will attract attention, hold its audience long enough, and clearly communicate its message (203). Douglas Knudson, Ted Cable, and Larry Beck have more specific criteria for effective exhibits. A good concept, an appropriate topic, careful homework, contents that covey the message clearly, a design and layout that conveys the message clearly, and a positive visitor experience are all essential elements of an effective exhibit (258).
John Veverka in his book Interpretive Master Planning presents a few learning principles and concepts that may be important to keep in mind when designing exhibits (124).
� We all bring our pasts to the present.
� First impressions are especially important.
� My perception is not your perception.
� Simplicity and organization clarify messages.
� A picture can be worth a thousand words.
� People learn better when they�re actually involved.
The advantages and
disadvantages of interactive exhibits
According to this model, a type 1 exhibit is that in which the visitor
does something to the exhibit, and the exhibit does something back
(motion-active cell). In a type 2a
exhibit, the person is doing something, but the exhibit is not (inert-active
cell). In a type 2b exhibit, the
exhibit is moving, but the visitor just watches (motion-passive cell). In a type 3 exhibit, neither the visitor nor the exhibit is
doing anything (inert-passive cell). As
an exhibit moves from type 3 to type 1, intrinsic interest increases, and the
need for interpretive technique decreases.
In essence, a type 1 display in which both the exhibit and the visitor
are moving is intrinsically more interesting than a type 3 display where neither
moves. A much greater interpretive
technique will be required with a type 3 display to make it effective.
The computer kiosk display in the Conservation Hall of Fame will fit into the type 1 designation. The visitor will touch the screen depending upon their interests, and the computer will respond to the touch by providing the visitor with a story of one of the inductees. The computer will naturally be interesting for visitors.
Again referring to the Gross and Zimmerman book, interactive exhibits are those in which the visitor acts upon the exhibit, and the exhibit does something that acts upon the visitor (42). All interactive exhibits are type 1 displays on the Cherem Exhibit Mode Communication Matrix. The computer kiosks will also be interactive exhibits according to this definition. Gross and Zimmerman outline both advantages and disadvantages with interactive exhibits, which must be taken into consideration when designing computer kiosk systems (42-43).
Advantages:
Disadvantages
Using computers as tools
for interpretation
Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of different types of exhibits helps to determine which type of display will be the most effective in a certain setting. Computers are a specific type of interactive exhibit. With the fast pace of changing technology today, very little has been written about the interpretive use of computers in visitor and nature centers. Yet, when touring various centers throughout the country, it is rare to find a center that does not have some sort of computer display. Some centers add computers to their exhibitions just to stay on the cutting edge of technology. Computer exhibits, like all interpretive exhibits, must be justified on the basis of need and effectiveness. Expensive, high-tech gadgetry is useless unless it helps to fulfill the missions of the agency and provide visitors with an experience they cannot get from other sources.
A few modern-day resources exist which provide some guidance to creating successful computer exhibits. However, an old source will be referred to first. Back in 1957, Freeman Tilden had the foresight to describe modern �gadgetry� in regards to interpretation. He writes, �So, whether one likes it or not, we are going to have more�and I should hope, better�mechanical devices aimed at multiplying the interpretive effort� (95). Tilden believed that nothing can replace direct human contact, but with funding limitations, interpretation will rely more and more on non-personal means. Though he probably had no idea of the computer revolution, that pictures, photographs, movies, and sounds could be inexpensively incorporated into a single machine, he provided important insights into the gadgets of his time, namely tape players and slide shows. He maintained that a good device is better than no contact at all. Similarly, good interpretation from a device is better than a poor performance from an actual person. However, devices are only acceptable if the interpretation truly is good. Poor interpretation from a device is much worse than poor interpretation from a person. In fact, poor interpretation from a device may be worse than no interpretation at all (96). He ends the chapter with a simple warning, �Gadgets do not supplant the personal contact, we accept them as valuable alternatives and supplements� (97).
Though Tilden may not have had computers in mind when writing about �gadgets,� his insights definitely hold true today. Coming back to modern times, Larry Beck and Ted Cable in their book Interpretation for the 21st Century provide guiding principles for including computer exhibits in visitor and nature centers. The advantages of using computers in centers are that computers respond to stimuli, they create new experiences, and they bring people to places and events they cannot go to in real life. Disadvantages of computer systems include being impersonal and being too complicated. Older generations, who may not be comfortable with computers, might find such displays intimidating (101). Beck and Cable also describe three attributes of a successful interpretive computer exhibit (101).
Three types of computer exhibits exist: reference devices, personal tour guides, and simulations (Beck 105). The Conservation Hall of Fame computer kiosks will be the first of these types of exhibits. Reference devices allow visitors to gain information about certain topics, both textual and graphical. According to research done at various institutions, interactive computers strongly attract visitors, hold their attention, and promote learning (Beck 106). These important facts are solid rationale for creating interpretive computer kiosks in the hall of fame. Beck and Cable also describe touch screens for computers, that allow people to directly touch the screen of a computer, instead of manipulate a mouse or keyboard. Touch screens are easy for most visitors to use, even for those that have limited dexterity (108). This is important to keep in mind when designing for universal accessibility. The hall of fame computers will be incorporating touch screen technology for ease of use.
Computer exhibits seem to be popular and successful. According to Beck and Cable, fun is the key to the interactive computer�s success, and the majority of visitors enjoy them much more than static exhibits (108). In addition, computer interactives promote non-sequential learning (Beck 107). Slides and videos are embedded in linear learning process; the visitor must watch from the beginning to the end to understand the true meaning of the exhibit. With computers, the visitor can choose which topics interest him or her the most, and how detailed of information he or she might want. In essence, the visitor chooses the path and pace of learning, and diverse audiences are served (Beck 107).
When designing interpretive computer exhibits, all of the same guidelines for effective exhibits must be followed. However, the uniqueness of the computer exhibit requires additional considerations. Visitors will be gathering information through different paths and paces. The designer must consider the learning paths that a diverse audience might take. Visitors must have ways to go forward, backward, or directly to a reference point in the program in order to achieve the maximum educational value (Beck 107). Information should be presented in different forms as well, including pictures, movies, sounds, and text.
Videos will be one of the most important forms of information on the hall of fame computer kiosks. Moving pictures allow designers to tell a complex and interesting story in short amount of time. According to Beck and Cable, video adds color, motion, and sound to exhibits, which attracts and maintains visitor attention. They also provide the following recommendations when adding video to exhibits: people only watch videos for up to three minutes, corresponding text should be included for those that cannot hear well, seating should be provided, and parabolic speakers which directed sound should be included so other visitors are not disturbed elsewhere in the facility (Beck 102). The video will be stored on DVD discs, which last longer than VHS tapes, have fewer maintenance problems, and are of higher quality (Beck 102).
Visitor studies at museums
and interpretive centers
The years of visitor research at museums and interpretive centers have revealed some important general characteristics of audiences. In his book, Interpretive Master Planning, John Veverka lists a few of these characteristics. First, provocative headlines and graphics draw people�s attention (133). In the case of the computer kiosk project, an attractive title screen with graphics and moving elements will invite visitors to explore the program. Second, the average viewing time for a video or slide program in an exhibit is about three minutes (Veverka 133). This again affects the computer kiosk project, since movies will be one of the primary interpretive features to demonstrate the lives of the hall of fame inductees. Third, Veverka suggests keeping vocabulary on all signs at a fifth-grade level (133). This level is understandable to the majority of visitors, and yet refrains from �talking down� to adults. All text in the interpretive computer program will be kept concise and simple. Finally, Veverka cites a two-year study by the USDA Forest Service that came up with interesting results (135).
� 65% of visitors interact with audience-participation devices. If the device was too difficult to figure out easily, the visitors moved on.
� 55% of visitors watched videos and slide programs. However, only 8% watched movies over 6 minutes.
� The longer and more complex the message, the shorter the viewing time.
Knudson, Cable, and Beck focused on other aspects of visitor characteristics. They describe three types of exhibit visitors (252). The first type of visitor is the �skater,� who pays little attention to the displays, may read a few headlines, and is in a hurry. The second type is the �stroller,� who reads enough to understand the major themes, and thus has a better understanding of the big picture. The third type of visitor is the �studier,� who reads the fine print of every label and carefully examines every object. Exhibits must be designed to meet the needs of all three visitor types. A single person actually tends to exhibit all three types when visiting a museum or interpretive center (Knudson 252).
Past, current, and future
visitation of the Conservation Hall of Fame
Deborah Yarmark provides greater detail of the Conservation Hall of Fame visitors in her thesis entitled, A Market Analysis and Visitor Services Plan for the Schmeeckle Reserve. Using telephone and personal interview techniques, a list of visitor characteristics was compiled specific to the Schmeeckle Reserve visitor center (which also includes the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame). Through her 1995 study, Yarmark discovered that 45.9% of the visitors were from Stevens Point, 4.1% were from Plover, and 50% were from other areas. Almost 25.3% of the visitors were UW-SP students (49). First-time visitors comprised 38.2% of the audience, while 61.8% were repeat visitors (50). The most common way of finding out about the reserve was by word of mouth. In addition, 67.4% of the visitors come in groups of 4 or less, with the majority coming in pairs. A final result from this study indicated that 68.2% of visitors plan on spending 2 hours or less at the Schmeeckle Reserve (Yarmark 51).
Although not necessarily attached to the visitor center, Yarmark discovered some other important characteristics about visitors to the Schmeeckle Reserve. Walking the trails is the most common reason for visiting the reserve. In 1985, a study revealed that 88% of the UW-SP students use the Schmeeckle Reserve (Exhibit Plan 14). Remarkably, ten years later Yarmark found that 88.3% of the students have been to the reserve at least once (64). Only about 52% of the survey Stevens Point residents had visited the reserve (66). Finally, the highest level of interest among motel users was in the exhibits (Yarmark 55).
What does all this mean for the Conservation Hall of Fame interpretive computer project? First, visitors have a limited amount of time to spend at Schmeeckle Reserve (2 hours), and most people come to hike. Therefore, the time spent looking at exhibits is probably very low. The interactive computer must provide information to visitors in a quick and easy manner. Although the storylines may be fast-paced, interactivity and fun should be emphasized in the final design. However, since most users are repeat visitors, it may be beneficial to incorporate many storylines into the computer systems. Since visitors will not be able to experience the storyline of every inductee in one visit, future visits will provide them with new storylines and thus new experiences.
The second important point is that most visitors come to the Conservation Hall of Fame as part of a group. The computer kiosk exhibit must nourish the social aspects of the visitors. Intriguing questions, full screen pictures, and high quality movies will enhance the social experience of people, who will be able to explore the interpretive computer together. The last conjecture we can obtain from the results is that about half of the visitors come from the Stevens Point area, and half of them do not. The interactive computer should contain a balance between specific local (Stevens Point) information, which would be of interest to residents, and more broad regional information, which would attract the attention of visitors from outside of the local area.
The tool of interpretation will be utilized to achieve this goal. Through interpretation, the speaker attempts to reveal meanings behind the facts to the visitor. Exhibits are an appropriate means of interpretation in the Conservation Hall of Fame, as long as they are sensitive to the needs of the visitor. Many institutions have recently accepted interactive computers as devices for interpretation. Computers have been found to attract the visitor�s attention, hold attention for a long period of time, and increase the learning potential. Interpretive touch screen computer kiosks will be installed in the Conservation Hall of Fame to provide visitors with information about the lives of the inductees.
Visitors are an important component of interpretive exhibits that have often been ignored in the past. For decades, museums and interpretive centers have been collecting data about visitors� reactions to exhibits. These studies provide a long list of general visitor characteristics that should be referred to when designing interpretive plans. In addition, specific studies at the Schmeeckle Reserve Visitor Center have revealed important characteristics of the project�s target audience. This information, along with the missions of the agencies and the resources to be interpreted, will be used to design an effective and interpretive computer program for the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame.
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