Running head: HUMAN FACTOR AND YORUBA FATHERS

Human Factor, Paternal Presence in the Home, and Toddlers’ Cognitive Performance Among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria

Oluyomi A. Ogunnaike

Room 449, College of Professional Studies

University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point

Stevens Point, WI 54481

Phone: (715) 346 - 4742

Fax: (715) 346 - 4846

Email: oogunnai@uwsp.edu

Abstract

The presence of the fathers in the home has a significant impact on family well -being. His dedication, sense of responsibility and commitment to his family are characteristics of the Human Factor (HF) personality spectrum that are essential to the overall development and well-being of any society. To better understand the relationship between father's presence and the Human Factor for the purpose of policy formulation, the present paper utilized a cultural framework referred to as the "Developmental Niche" to explore the relationship between paternal presence and child developmental outcome among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria. Findings indicated that not only was father's presence associated with enhanced cognitive performance of Yoruba toddlers, fathers who lived in the homes had fewer wives, participated in child care, engaged in skilled labor, and provided economic contributions towards feeding. In essence, paternal presence in the home was strongly associated with a commitment to family welfare and availability of economic resources to concretize such commitment. These findings reiterate the salience of the Human Factor elements of responsibility and commitment, and the need for a reawakening of human qualities that promote diligence, accountability, and dedication. Formal education, job flexibility, and good paying jobs are issues for policy makers to consider in making policy decisions on fathers.

KEY WORDS: Human Factor, Father's presence, Yoruba of southwest Nigeria, cognitive performance, developmental niche

Human Factor and Paternal Presence in the Home Among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria

Societies are made up of several institutions that are managed by people. For these institutions to function effectively there is need for those in charge to demonstrate certain characteristics or qualities that enhance success. Such characteristics and/or qualities are those reflected in what Adjibolosoo (1995) referred to as the Human Factor. According to Adjibolosoo (1995), the Human Factor is defined as " a spectrum of personality characteristics and other dimensions of human performance that enable social, economic and political institutions to function and remain functional over time" (page 33). Adjibolosoo explained that personality characteristics, namely, responsibility, diligence, accountability, and integrity, are essentials of the HF.

The HF has six primary components, namely, spiritual capital, moral capital, aesthetic capital, human capital, human abilities, and human potentials (Adjibolosoo, 1995). For a more detailed review of each component, see Adjibolosoo, 1995 (p. 34 – 37). According to Adjibolosoo, these six components are dynamic and somewhat interdependent. For example, it is impossible for the human and aesthetic components to function effectively without the spiritual and moral capital. Each component is endowed with the capacity to enrich the others, thus, enhancing and maximizing the HF.

Of relevance to the present paper are the human capital and human abilities. Human capital refers to a variety of skills, attitude, and capabilities utilized by people in enhancing societal standard of living (Adjibolosoo, 1995). Emotional and physical health, intelligence, communication, understanding and astuteness are indicators of the human capital.

According to Adjibolosoo (1995), human abilities refer to the "power or capacity of an individual to undertake projects competently or effectively perform tasks requiring mental and physical effort" (p. 36). Human attributes that promote successful task performance include but are not limited to responsibility, wisdom, reliability, adaptability, devotion, dedication, accountability, courage, (Adjibolosoo, 1995).

In essence, the human components of the HF reflect those attributes, commitment, and dedication the individual demonstrates as she or he interacts with others, go about their daily business, and contribute to the effectiveness of the society at large.

Human Factor (HF) and Fathers

The role of fathers has been widely documented in western and non - western cultures ( Blankenhorn, 1995; Evans, 1994; Hewlett, 1992; Lamb, 1997; LeVine, Klein, & Owen, 1967; McAdoo, 1993; Ninio & Rinott, 1988; Nsamenang, 1987, 1992). Western literature emphasizes that fathers engage in activities such as feeding, bathing, reading and play with their children. Also, western fathers provide economic, psychological, and social support for their wives (Baruch & Barnett, 1988; Blankenhorn, 1995; Lamb, 1997; Lamb & Oppenheim, 1989). Non - western literature portrays fathers as engaging in similar activities and providing social, psychological, and economic support for their families (Harkness & Super, 1992; Hewlett, 1992; Jankowiak, 1992; Nsamenang, 1987; Ogunnaike, 1995, 1997). For example, Aka fathers of Central Africa play a very significant role in child care and child rearing (Hewlett, 1992). These fathers carry, bathe, feed, and also help the mothers in a major economic activity. In West and East Africa, there is limited paternal involvement in such similar activities, especially in the early years (Harkness & Super, 1992; LeVine, Dixon, LeVine, Richman, Leiderman, Keefer, & Brazelton, 1994; Nsamenang, 1992, 1987). The literature cited above support fathers’ responsibility and commitment to the care of their children regardless of society. Such responsibility and commitment are major tenets of the HF (see Adjibolosoo, 1995).

The thesis of this paper rests on the implicit premise that the potency of paternal presence in the home on the development and well-being of children and families is closely associated with HF qualities of commitment, responsibility, and accountability. Research indicates that an increasing number of children will not live with their biological fathers (Blankenhorn, 1995; Furstenberg, 1988) and if paternal presence in the home is as crucial as research suggests, there is need for a closer look at HF associated with the presence of fathers in the home in order to enhance the quality of fatherhood as we approach the 21st C. Knowing the specific attributes of the HF associated with paternal presence will provide insight about the types of policy, program initiatives, government incentives, and community- based actions facilitating the presence of fathers in the home.

To examine the concept of paternal presence in the home, this paper is divided into 3 sections. The first section presents an overview of father’s presence in the home vis-à-vis HF and its implications for developmental outcomes of young children. The second section presents a brief summary of family policy in relation to fatherhood. The third section describes the present study and the conceptual framework utilized in examining the relationship of the father’s presence among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria to cognitive performance of Yoruba toddlers. The study questions and hypotheses conclude this section.

HF and paternal presence in the home

Although fathers’ involvement and support differ across societies and cultures, literature on fathers suggests an increased awareness of the importance of the paternal role in the lives of children (Blankenhorn, 1995; Levine, 1993; Marsiglio, 1995; Ogunnaike, 1997). Blankenhorn (1995) noted that the absence of fathers has implications for poverty, delinquency, and decline in competence and children’s character. Other researchers suggest that the presence of a caring adult in the home (not necessarily the father) is associated with enhanced children’s developmental outcome (Crockett, Eggbeen & Hawkins, 1993). Controversy surrounding the presence or absence of fathers in the home stem from a lack of agreement about the influence of mediating factors such as social support, available economic resources, and reasons for father’s absence (Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990). These factors are reflected in two other components of the HF, namely, human capital and moral capital (Adjibolosoo, 1995, p. 35 – 36). * do I define human capital & moral capital here?

It is generally agreed that fathers play a major role and do have a significant impact on their children’s development (Blankenhorn, 1995; Crockett et al.,1993; Lamb, 1997; Marsiglo, 1995; Parke, 1981; Pedersen, Yarrow, Anderson, & Cain, 1979; Radin, 1994; Shinn, 1978). For example, Pederson and his associates proposed that paternal interactions have an impact on early schema development and the cognitive capacities of the infant. They noted that paternal interactions provide an added variety and novelty that enrich and enlarge the growing infant’s repertoire of experiences. Blankenhorn (1995) identified four benefits of paternal investment in children’s lives. These include paternal nurturing, physical protection, material support, and transmission of cultural knowledge and ways of behaving that are needed for the child to be a successful member of a particular society.

In her explanation of the father’s relationship to the well-being of children, Clarke (1978 cf Crockett et al., 1993) mentioned that fathers affect children by assuming the paternal social role, economic support of the family, and providing support for the mother. Such maternal support could be direct - through paternal presence in the home and active participation in child care activities. Indirect paternal support of the mother is reflected in the provision of financial resources. The prominence of the breadwinner role of the father is well - documented (Blankenhorn, 1995; Engle & Breaux, 1994; Evans, 1994; Lamb, 1997). Evans noted that differences in earning power between men and women, availability of jobs and the effect of urbanization e.g. rural-urban migration, increased maternal labor outside the home, and media images of fatherhood, affect the breadwinner role of the father. These factors consequently affect how fathers perceive themselves in relation to their families and the extent to which they are present in the homes to make any impact. Also, research on the economic role of fathers suggest that fathers who contribute to the economic maintenance of the home are likely to be present in the home and consequently affect the development of their children (Engle, 1993). Engle explained that Guatemalan fathers who provided financially for the family had children with enhanced nutritional status. Similar findings were reported among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria by Zeitlin, Megawangi, Kramer, Colletta, Babatunde, and Garman (1995), and Ogunnaike (1997). Ogunnaike noted that fathers who contributed to feeding had good jobs and were present in the home all the time. Paternal economic contributions and presence in the home were associated with enhanced cognitive performance of Yoruba toddlers on the Bayley Mental Scales (Ogunnaike, 1997, Zeitlin et al., 1995).

The impact of fathers’ presence in the home has also been examined from various perspectives. Early studies compared developmental outcomes of children from father-absent homes with those from intact families (Shinn, 1978). Findings suggest that children from father- absent homes were less competent than their counterparts from two - parent families. In a review of studies on the influence of paternal absence on cognitive competence, Shinn (1978) argued that father’s absence in the homes may result in increased anxiety, reduced stability, and decreased parental attention. In such homes, the enhancement of cognitive abilities may not be priority to the single parent. These studies have however been criticized on the basis of methodology and inadequate examination of other potential mediating factors, namely, availability of social and economic support, reason for father’s absence and economic adjustment (Johnson, 1993; Pedersen, 1976).

Other studies explored the impact of direct paternal involvement in the lives of children (Harkness & Super, 1992; Pedersen et al., 1979; Radin, 1981, 1982; Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990; Yogman, Kindlon, & Earls, 1995). Findings from these studies suggest an association between fathers’ presence in the home and the provision of enriched social, emotional, and cognitive stimulation. For example, Radin (1981, 1982) reported a positive link between paternal presence and cognitive competence among preschoolers. Findings from her study of 59 families, one-third of which had fathers as the sole primary caregiver revealed an association between father’s presence in the home, his involvement in child care, engagement in stimulating activities and the cognitive abilities of the preschoolers. Radin noted that fathers who were primary caregivers were highly involved, spent time in teaching and engaging their preschoolers in stimulating activities.

Similarly, a longitudinal study of 985 low birthweight preterm infants revealed the importance of father’s presence in the home and involvement on the cognitive performance at three years of age (Yogman et al., 1995). The authors reported that in 41% of the homes, fathers maintained a stable presence in the home and also engaged in play and other child care activities with their children. Children of these stable and highly involved fathers scored significantly higher on the Stanford - Binet Intelligence Test at 3 years of age compared to their counterparts from homes with less stable paternal presence and involvement. Findings from other studies also suggest a positive impact of the father’s presence (Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990; Ogunnaike, 1997). Using the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), Svanum, Bringle, and McLaughlin (1982) studied the effect of father absence among a sample of 6 - 11 year old children. The authors reported an initial association between father’s absence and poor cognitive performance on the WISC. However, the potency of father absence was reduced after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES). Svanum and associates concluded that differences in socioeconomic status accounted for the negative effects associated with father absence.

Other researchers have emphasized the benefits of the presence of other caring male adults in the child’s home. For example, Crockett and her associates (Crockett et al., 1993) studied the impact of paternal presence on the verbal functioning of low-income 4 – 6 year old African - American, Hispanic, and White children on the revised Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test (PPVT – R). Findings revealed no association between father’s presence in the home and the performance of African – American children, although father’s presence affected the performance of Hispanic and White children. Crockett and her associates explained that compared to their counterparts, the African – American child was likely to experience continuous paternal absence especially in the early years. Thus, other social and economic support may have been provided to compensate for such father absence.

Similar perspectives on the minimal impact of paternal presence was likewise proposed by Hawkins and Eggebeen (1991). The authors examined the effects of patterns of male residency in maritally disrupted families on the cognitive functioning of low - income 4 - 6 year olds. Patterns of male residency in maritally disrupted families included: intact, grandfathers, step - fathers, reunited father, chaotic and no male. Using the PPVT and McCarthy Scale of Children’s Abilities, Hawkins and Eggebeen reported no significant difference in the verbal functioning of children from families with no adult males and those from intact families. The authors however explained that because the mothers of these children were quite young (about 20 years of age), some of the children from families with no males may have had contact with their grandfathers. Contact with other adult male figures, particularly, close relatives, has implications for enhancing cognitive competence in children (cf Hawkins & Eggebeen, 1991). Further, Hawkins and Eggebeen argued that since the children were still young, they may have experienced a brief period of father absence which was not pervasive enough to influence their verbal functioning.

Findings from cross-cultural research attest to the importance of father’s presence in the home. For example, among the Huhhotian in urban China, Jankowiak (1992) reported that fathers provided educational resources and engaged in teaching and other cognitive stimulation activities with their young children. Findings from a Bermudan study on the role of biological risk factors and family background risk factors on toddlers’ cognitive performance on the Bayley Scales of Mental Development suggest a powerful impact of father’s presence (Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990). The authors reported an interaction effect of father absence on low birth weight and cognitive performance of toddlers. Specifically, children of low birth weight from father - absent homes had lower scores compared to their counterparts from father - present homes.

In a comparative study of Israeli toddlers from father absent homes and those from two-parent families, Levy - Shiff (1982) observed that children from the single-headed homes exhibited lower cognitive and emotional adjustment compared to children from two - parent homes. Levy - Shiff attributed this difference to maternal child rearing style in the single-headed homes reflected in indulgence and inconsistency. Findings from an earlier study also suggested cognitive deficits among older children from father - absent homes (Lifshiz, 1976 cf Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).

Findings from Japan are inconclusive regarding the presence of fathers in the home and its impact on the children. Ishii - Kuntz (1992, 1993) explained that work demands and a prevalent need among fathers to preserve the "masculine image" of authority and discipline are associated with minimal interactions between Japanese fathers and their children. Despite the limited interactions between fathers and children, Japanese mothers utilized what Ishii - Kuntz referred to as the fathers’ "psychological presence" (see p. 58) in reinforcing the important role of the father in the family. These women emphasized the father’s authority and breadwinner role.

Very little information exists about the relationship between fathers’ presence in the home and cognitive performance of young children in the African culture. The role of fathers has been examined in terms of child care involvement and investment (Hewlett, 1987, 1992) and the mediating influences of his role in the family (Harkness & Super, 1992; Nsamenang, 1987, 1992). Findings from the latter suggest that fathers are interested in their children’s educational progress and achievements. How they go about ensuring such progress was not identified. Early studies in Nigeria by Robert LeVine and associates (1967) suggest that Yoruba fathers, especially those with little or no education do not necessarily engage in one- on-one interactions with their children. This mimimal interaction was attributed to the fact that children were more likely to interact with their peers in the neighborhood. Thus leaving the father as an "onlooker". The educated Yoruba fathers on the other hand, engaged in reading and play with their children.

In summary, majority of findings from western societies suggested that the father’s presence played a significant role in the cognitive development of their children (Lifshitz 1976 cf Sagi et al., 1987; Levy - Shiff, 1982; Radin, 1981, 1982). Several authors suggested that the father’s presence in the home and his engagement in cognitive stimulation, direct teaching, and play, had a positive impact on the cognitive performance of their children (Pedersen et al., 1979; Radin, 1981, 1982). Other researchers argued that the father’s availability, perceptions and attitudes about his presence determined the extent of his interactions with his children and his influence on cognitive competence (Krampe & Fairweather, 1993; Lamb, 1987; Lamb & Oppenheim, 1989; Marsiglio, 1993; Ninio & Rinott, 1988).

Increased attention to social policy and programs for fathers has resulted from changes in the sociodemographics of families in the United States (Knitzer & Bernard, 1997). Sociodemographic changes, namely, increased divorce, fragmented family ties, increased paternal absence from the home, increase in single - headed homes, decrease in the number of children under 18 years living in 2 - parent families, and increase in maternal employment outside the home continue to affect family policy, especially those related to fathers (Blankenhorn, 1995; Cherlin, 1988; Furstenberg, 1988; Knitzer & Bernard, 1997; Lawhon, 1996). These authors noted that increased absence of fathers has resulted in legislation aimed at ensuring that fathers did not abandon their economic responsibilities. For example, the Family Support Act (1988, 1990) was established to enforce the payment of child support by fathers.

Findings from an overview of state initiatives to foster responsible fatherhood suggest that states are establishing programs and policy aimed at providing financial, social, and emotional support to fathers (Knitzer & Bernard, 1997). For example, states like Georgia, Oregon, Connecticut have established programs that provide training, job - linked services, emotional and financial support to fathers. Also, efforts are being made to create family-friendly work environments in South Carolina. The Governor is working with his cabinet members to establish a father-friendly workplace that allows fathers and mothers to spend time with their families.

In summary, a major focus of policy on fathers has been largely tied to economic provision and the collection of child support. Efforts are being made through state policy and programs to enhance nurturing in fathers, provide financial support, mentoring services, and employment.

Having examined the implications of paternal presence in the home and policy on fatherhood, the next section describes the conceptual framework utilized by the present study in examining the parameters of paternal presence in the home among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria. The framework, referred to as "the developmental niche" emphasizes the importance of the child rearing environment in the development of the child.

The Yoruba Father and the Human Factor (** 5/27; need to connect how the Yoruba father demonstrates HF)

The Yoruba father has been portrayed as a disciplinarian, an authority figure with clearly defined interactions with the child (Babatunde, 1992; Zeitlin et al.,1995). Such interactions revolve around teaching, e.g. character building, moral training, and modeling of good and acceptable behaviors. As a strict disciplinarian, the Yoruba father ensures that the child is well-behaved and disciplined at all cost to avoid shame or reproach to the family (Babatunde, 1992). Because social skills, namely, obedience, respect for elders, and responsibility are valued among the Yoruba, the father’s disciplinarian role has a profound impact on the acquisition of such social skills.

The Yoruba father makes financial provisions including school fees, rent, and the purchase of food, furniture, and books for children’s schooling. To meet their financial obligations, Yoruba fathers engage in occupations that include professional activities such as civil service, teaching, engineering, and law. They also engage in skilled labor, namely, carpentry, fishing, farming, and transportation (Aina et al., 1993). Some of these occupations, for e.g. farming, transportation, and teaching may take the father away from the home for several hours or days (Ojofeitimi & Adelekan, 1984). Yoruba fathers play a significant role in their children’s lives, first as a disciplinarian, and through other styles of interactions, namely, play, and storytelling in the home (LeVine, Klein, & Owen, 1967).

Despite the above claims, Yoruba fathers have been portrayed as having minimal involvement in child care (Onibokun, 1992). Onibokun studied the difference between mothers and fathers in child care involvement. Her findings suggest that Yoruba fathers were least likely to participate in child care. Findings from an earlier study by LeVine and associates (1967) suggest otherwise. LeVine and colleagues studied paternal involvement of elite and traditional Yoruba fathers with their young children. The authors observed that elite fathers engaged in reading and occasional babysitting while traditional fathers engaged in a more peripheral babysitting of their children, making their presence known only when necessary (for e.g. if there is a fight or an accident). Recent findings by Aina and his colleagues (Aina et al., 1993) indicate that educated Yoruba fathers who lived at home were more involved in child care, especially, during the mother’s absence. More research is needed on the Yoruba father and their involvement in children’s lives before final conclusions are made.

The above paragraphs have expantiated the role of the Yoruba father. However, the father’s ability to perform his role is affected by the effects of urbanization and modernization (Aina, 1992; Nsamenang, 1987; Ogunnaike, 1997). Urbanization has resulted in the establishment of formal institutions such as schools, courts, and clinics, resulting in increased knowledge about child development. Such knowledge increase consequently affect parent - child interactions. Children are becoming more knowledgeable than their parents, and as such may challenge or undermine parental authority. Likewise, modernization has resulted in a shift in parental emphasis on the "quantity" of children to the "quality" of child rearing. Aina (1992) stressed that parents strive to provide "quality" by investing in material and non-material resources that enhance children’s ability to function in any technological environment.

In summary, the Yoruba father is an embodiment of authority, one who ensures that the child acquires all the necessary social and cognitive skills to be a successful member of the Yoruba culture

The developmental niche framework as described by Super and Harkness (1986) represents an attempt to bridge a gap between psychology and anthropology to explain the development of the young child within a cultural context. The developmental niche consists of three subsystems or components integrated in a whole system. The components are:

1. Physical and social settings in which the child lives;

2. Customs of child care and child rearing;

3. Psychology of the caretakers

This component underscores the importance of the type of environment, peoples, and other resources to which the child is exposed early in life. Super and Harkness (1986) noted that appropriate social behaviors, skills, and style of interactions are largely determined by people and societal institutions. For example, the authors explained how the physical setting of the child mediates development through sleeping patterns and caregiving style. Super and Harkness observed that among a rural population (Kipsigis of Kenya), the baby slept close to the mother on the mat and was fed on demand. Among their urban sample, (North America), babies slept in a different room from their caregivers and were not fed on demand. The authors noted that overall, Kipsigis’ babies were noted to sleep less than the American babies. This was attributed to the arrangement of the different physical settings.

Central to this component are caregiver efforts in facilitating the development of the child through specific activities. Super and Harkness (1986) described child care customs as behavioral sequences adopted and adapted by caregivers to meet the challenges of limited human and technological resources in a given environment. Among the Kipsigis, Super and Harkness noted that during the early years, it was common practice to carry the child on the back. Although Kokwet caregivers mentioned that carrying on the back soothed the child and kept the child from trouble, Super and Harkness (1986) noted that such practice had significant psychomotor implications for the Kokwet child. By being carried on the back, the Kokwet child was exposed to rich visual experiences and physical exercises (e.g. turning, stretching) which allowed for the development of the child’s muscles and a variety of social interactions with the caregiver and others.

This refers to the beliefs, "ethnotheories" and behavioral perspectives adopted by caregivers in their role as parents (Super & Harkness, 1986, p. 556). The "ethnotheories" of child development according to Super and Harkness refer to the beliefs about the nature of children, what constitutes their needs, as well as the beliefs about effective child rearing and parenting goals. These beliefs and ethnotheories guide caregiver expectations and interpretation of situations, activities, and interactions with the child. For example, Super and Harkness explained that Kokwet mothers believe that children’s language is fostered by other children and not necessarily through their verbal interactions with the children. In their conversations with the child, mothers used commands that the child is expected to obey. In essence, one of the goals of adult verbal interactions is that of ensuring obedience in the children. Thus, the beliefs and ethnotheories of parents influence their perception of children and how they will go about ensuring that children acquire relevant behavioral, cognitive, and social skills.

The three components of the developmental niche are coordinated in a homeostatic manner which fosters socialization and the acquisition of relevant behavioral skills (Super & Harkness, 1986). To explain the concept of homeostasis of the niche, the authors noted that among the Kipsigis , there was a common belief that the arrival of a new child enhances socialization of the second-to-youngest child. Before the arrival of the new baby, it is believed (psychology of the caregiver) that the second- to- youngest child lacked cultural values, namely, obedience, discipline, and respect. However, with the arrival of a new baby, not only is the position of the last child changed, other changes are set in motion through the physical setting and customs geared towards ensuring the proper socialization of the child. For example, there is a change in the child’s sleeping arrangement (physical setting). The second-to - youngest child will no longer sleep with the mother on her mat, instead, the child is required to sleep with the siblings. Also, instead of being cared for exclusively by another sibling, this child begins to assume more responsibilities by participating in household chores and other caregiving activities (customs). This example explains how the caregiver’s belief guides the physical setting and child rearing customs among the Kipsigis. The example further demonstrates how the components of the niche are coordinated by young and adult caregivers to foster socialization and also facilitate the process of transition from infancy to early childhood.

As earlier mentioned, this paper aims at exploring the dynamics or parameters of paternal presence in the home in order to unravel factors that enhance fathers’ presence in the home for the purpose of enhancing policies on paternal involvement. Although several studies have identified the importance of paternal factors such as education, occupation, caregiving involvement and presence in the home (Ogunnaike, 1995; Poresky & Henderson, 1982; Yogman et al., 1995), most of these studies do not explain the process by which these factors relate to cognitive performance. A knowledge of such a process will enable policy makers to focus on specific means or resources that can be used to foster paternal involvement.

Because the developmental niche framework highlights the links between the development of the child and mediating factors such as physical setting, caregiving customs and practices, and psychological beliefs of the caregiver, the present study examines the patttern of interactions among similar mediating factors and family sociodemographics among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria and the impact of such interactions on the cognitive performance of toddlers on the Bayley Mental Scales. The study focused on fathers because the Yoruba people are patrilineal and the adult Yoruba male wields much authority and consequently affects the quality of child rearing and developmental outcome of the child.

. The next paragraph describes the questions and hypotheses of the study.

The following were the questions and hypotheses that guided the study:

The following questions guided the study:

1. What aspects of the HF will be associated with paternal presence in the home?

2. How can policy decisions on fathers be influenced by answers obtained from Q1?

The following are the hypotheses of the study:

a. The presence of Yoruba fathers in the home will have a positive impact on toddlers’ cognitive performance.

b. Certain factors, namely, paternal education, occupation, and economic contribution, all of which are indicative of the HF will be associated with Yoruba fathers’ presence in the home.

Methodology

Background of Study.

This study is part of a larger, cross - sectional study examining the relationship between parenting beliefs, caregiving practices (mental stimulation and nutrition) and child developmental outcome (cognitive performance and nutritional status) among the Yoruba - speaking people of southwest Nigeria. The study was conducted in Ogun and Lagos states in Nigeria by Tufts University School of Nutrition, in collaboration with University of Lagos as part of UNICEF’s Child Development Project.

Subjects.

The sample consisted of a total of 211 households in urban, semi-urban, and rural Yoruba communities in southwest Nigeria. Because Nigeria is a multi - ethnic society, the study included only Yoruba children to prevent problems of sampling, language, and cross - ethnic comparisons. Children, two years, or close to two years of age were chosen because of the rapid growth of cognitive skills and nutritional development occurring during this period. Subjects were drawn from the urban, semi - urban, and rural areas for the purpose of having a representative sample of the study population.

The urban sample was drawn from a predominantly low - income settlement of Makoko in Lagos City while the rural sample was drawn from six selected small rural villages in Ifo - Otta Local Government Area (LGA) in Ogun state. The semi - urban sample was selected from two medium - sized, semi - urban settlements located off the main Lagos - Abeokuta road about an hour or more from Lagos by vehicle.

Eligibility for selection of household/family included the following specifications:

- The mother is Yoruba,

- The target child is 22 to 26 months old,

- The child has a birth certificate to verify age,

- The child is not a twin,

- Both mother and child are present in the household.

The following instruments were administered by a team of two field workers during home visits which lasted approximately three hours.

(1). A comprehensive socio - demographic questionnaire containing questions about child care, caregiving practices, beliefs and attitudes, and socio - economic factors of caregivers. Yoruba mothers were asked questions about their education, occupation, marital status, age, and economic status. These mothers were also interviewd about their husbands’ education, occupation, presence in the home, and economic contributions.

(2). The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Bayley, 1969), was used along with interviewer-rated scales of behavior and affect of the mother and child. The Bayley has been described as one of the most popular instruments for assessing cognitive (physical and mental) readiness of preschool - aged children (Hauser - Cram & Shinkoff, 1988). Although the Bayley has been criticized for its lack of predictive validity of later child outcome (Crowe, Deittz, & Bennett, 1987), its success in assessing current cognitive skills of infants and toddlers in western (Crowe et al., 1987) and non-western cultures (Sigman et al., 1988) has been documented.

Due to the novelty of some materials and items on the Bayley, attempts were made to adapt them to be more culturally relevant to the Yoruba toddlers. For example, in the toy attainment task (Item 122), the bunny was referred to as "dog" and on the picture comprehension task (Item 130), the American flag was referred to as "cloth".

Procedure and Data Collection.

Field work began in the second week of September, 1988. Households were randomly selected and testing took place in an open courtyard or a spacious area of the house by teams of two field workers. One field worker carried out the interview with the mother and the other field worker administered the Bayley. The data were recorded on precoded forms and these forms were checked for errors within 24 hours of collection.

Dependent variable: This was the cognitive performance of Yoruba toddlers on the Bayley Mental Scales (Mental Development Index). The child was asked to perform certain activities (e.g. sort shapes, identify pictures, and retrieve objects) and assigned "pass", "fail", or "other". The child’s scores were calculated from passed items and converted to a standardized score provided in the Bayley Manual.

Independent variables: These consist of paternal sociodemographic factors, namely, education, occupation, economic contribution, and number of wives. Other factors, namely, father’s presence in the home, and child care participation were referred to as mediating factors. An outline of the variables is provided in Table 1

Table 1

Results

Cross - tabulation (chi - square) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to examine significant differences in the paternal factors across location. Findings are presented in Table 2

Table 2

Note. Groups having the same subscript are significantly different at p < . 01.

M = Median value

Fathers in the urban and rural areas were likely to live in the home all the time compared to fathers in the semi - urban area. Also, urban fathers were more likely to be monogamous and to have participated in child care. Fathers in the urban and semi - urban areas had better paying jobs and contributed more to feeding than their counterparts in the rural area. The educational status of the fathers did not significantly differ across location.

Pattern of relationship between paternal factors and outcome factors

Analysis using Spearman Correlation was utilized in examining the relationship between paternal factors, child’s age child’s nutritional status, and cognitive performance on the Bayley Mental Scales. Findings are presented in Table 3

Table 3

As Table 3 illustrates, educated Yoruba fathers were likely to have better paying jobs (r = . 31, p < . 001) and thus provided economic contributions toward feeding (r = . 16, p < . 05). Although educated Yoruba fathers were likely to participate in child care (r = . 12, p < . 05), they were less likely to live in the home all the time(r = - . 12, p < . 05). Yoruba fathers who lived in the home all the time had less paying jobs (r = - . 16, p < . 05), contributed toward feeding (r = . 21, p < . 01), and had children with enhanced nutritional status (r = . 15, p < . 05).

Heirarchical multiple regression analysis was used to examine how paternal factors such as occupation, education, presence in the home, and control factors (age and nutritional status of child) predicted cognitive performance of Yoruba toddlers on the Bayley Mental Scales. As illustrated in Table 4, the child’s age, child’s nutritional status, and the father’s presence in the home accounted for a significant amount of variance in cognitive performance on the Bayley, R = .37, F (10, 185) = 12.5, p < . 001.

Table 4

* p < . 05

** p < . 01

*** p < . 001

Younger Yoruba children and those who received adequate nutrition performed significantly better on the Bayley Mental Scales. The father’s presence in the home was the only paternal factor that accounted for a significant amount of variance in cognitive performance.

Discussion

The present data are congruent with findings from other studies that suggest the importance of paternal factors, namely, presence in the home, education, occupation, and economic support (Blankenhorn, 1995; Evans, 1994; Levine, 1993; Ogunnaike, 1995, 1997; Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990; Sigman et al., 1988). As I hypothesized, the presence of Yoruba fathers in the home had a positive impact on toddlers’ cognitive performance on Bayley Mental Scales. This finding is clearly indicative of the direct effect of paternal involvement in the child’s life. Research suggests that fathers who are present in the home provide positive and additive stimulation that enrich children’s learning experiences (Pedersen et al., 1979; Pruett, 1996; Yogman et al., 1995). Literature on adult - child interactions in Yoruba families suggest that Yoruba fathers engage in play, storytelling, teaching, and reading, activities shown to affect child developmental outcome (Aina et al., 1993; LeVine et al., 1967; Ogunnaike, 1995). Further, the present study indicates that Yoruba fathers who lived at home provided economic support for mothers and such maternal support is suggested to have positive effect on child outcome (Lamb, 1997; Radin & Russell, 1983). Due to the limted focus of this study, caution should be exercised in interpreting and generalizing these findings to all Nigerian fathers.

Also, the presence of the Yoruba father in the home was associated with education, occupation, and economic contributions. These findings are congruent with others that suggest a relationship between paternal presence in the home, maternal support and commitment to family well- being (Blankenhorn, 1995; Engle, 1993; Engle & Breaux, 1994; Ogunnaike, 1995). These authors noted that fathers who live in the home provide financial resources and other types of resources that in turn reduce maternal stress. My findings indicate that less educated men and those with less paying jobs were likely to live in the home all of the time. For example, Yoruba fathers who engage in skilled jobs, namely, a tailor or a carpenter is likely to have his shop either in the home or close by . Thus, he is likely to arrange his hours such that he is able to watch the child or be around in the home to help. Such flexibility may not be available to their counterparts in better paying jobs (e.g. civil servant).

Contrary to expectations, the more educated Yoruba fathers were, the less likely they were present in the home all the time. This pattern could be attributed to the fact that more educated fathers are likely to have better paying jobs and less likely to have a flexible work schedule. Other reasons are reflected in Nsamenang (1987)’s comments about parenting challenges faced by non-western families in adapting to urbanization. Nsamenang commented that parents in non-western cultures like the Yoruba are experiencing role confusion and various transitions engendered by increased maternal employment outside the home, media influence, and changing societal expectations. Other factors associated with paternal presence in the home among the Yoruba include monogamy and presence of younger children.

In summary, present findings indicate a positive relationship between the presence of Yoruba fathers in the home and enhanced cognitive performance on the Bayley Mental Scales. Yoruba fathers who lived at home all of the time were engaged in skilled labor, had little or no education, and provided economic contributions to feeding. Implications for policy decision and also for the human factor development are described next.

Implications for Policy

Findings from the present study indicate an association between father’s presence in the home and two potent factors; job flexibility and adequate economic resources. Other studies have emphasized other factors, namely, maternal support, good jobs, mentoring opportunities, and availability of parenting resources for fathers (Evans, 1994; Levine, 1993; Ogunnaike, 1997). How these factors can be utilized in policy decisions is discussed in this section.

A general consensus in the literature on fathers suggests the centrality of the breadwinner role to paternal satisfaction and involvement. According to Evans (1994) and Lamb (1997), men’s satisfaction with their breadwinner role enhances paternal involvement with the family. Thus, providing men with adequate training and accessibility to good paying jobs is likely to promote father’s self – esteem, which in turn fosters his relationship with his family (Engle & Breaux, 1994).

Maternal support

Research reveals that when it comes to child care, mothers are more likely to be involved and spend more time meeting the needs of children, compared to fathers (Lamb & Oppenheim, 1989). Such increased involvement affects the quality of paternal involvement due to the fact that some mothers are reluctant to allow active fathers’ involvement (Blankenhorn, 1995; Engle & Breaux, 1994; Evans, 1994; Lamb, 1997; Levine, 1993; Marsiglio, 1995). A major reason for such tardiness is a lack of faith in the father’s competence. Thus, it is necessary to educate mothers on how to encourage and support fathers’ involvement. Providing mothers useful information and knowledge about the benefits of paternal involvement, and helping families to achieve a sense of balance of power is expedient if we are to foster paternal involvement.

Because the breadwinner role of the father is very significant, it is expedient to enforce work policies that allow fathers to provide financially and participate in their children’s lives. Flextime opportunities, for example, half days for the purpose of attending parent conferences or time off to take care of a sick child (Lamb, 1997; Marsiglio, 1995). Teaching fathers how to maximize their time after work with their families will also be beneficial. According to Pleck (1983 cf Lamb 1997), women translate their nonworking hours into family duties more than men. While women translate each hour not spent in paid work into 40 - 45 minutes of family work, men translate every hour into less than 20 minutes.

Include fathers in social services and education

Blankenhorn (1995), Engle and Breaux (1994), and Lamb (1997) have advocated for a shift in the focus on the mother-child dyad to that which actively includes fathers in the provision of health and social services. Educational institutions should endeavor to involve fathers and men, encourage paternal interactions in the classrooms, and provide parenting materials and resources specifically designed for fathers. For example, pamphlets, videotapes on child development and adult - child interactions should be provided. Providing men and fathers with a basic awareness of the importance of what they do and who they are in the lives of children is crucial. Opportunities for play with children, focus group discussions, and workshops on fathering children should be encouraged and provided (Evans, 1994).

Evans (1994) noted that in order for men to act as fathers, they will need more than knowledge. They will need a supportive context to practice what they know about fatherhood and their roles as husbands. Engle and Breaux (1994) described certain supportive programs for fathers in the U.S. For example, a program, "The Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project", was established to help young and unwed men understand the challenges and parameters of fatherhood. This program was based on a Fatherhood Development Curriculum was designed for groups of men living in six U.S. cities (Lurie, 1992, cf Engle & Breaux, 1994). The men met weekly and engaged in lessons and role playing exercises on relationships and how to deal with feelings of frustration and anger. Findings from these projects suggest that the men appreciated the opportunities to share their feelings and concerns with others. Similar projects should be established to provide support for older fathers and other interested men.

Findings from a study on the relationship between family sociodemographics and developmental outcomes of Yoruba toddlers suggest that Yoruba fathers had a positive impact on cognitive performance (Ogunnaike, 1997). Ogunnaike suggested the establishment of paternal mentoring programs geared towards clarifying and nurturing the father’s involvement and investment in his family. Older and well-respected men in the community should serve as mentors to younger men in their localities. Mentors could serve as appropriate role models and also as a valuable resource to young men (Evans, 1994; Ogunnaike, 1997).

The above paragraphs outline the policy implications of factors associated with paternal presence in the home. The next paragraphs highlight the relationship between the Human Factor Problem and issues surrounding father’s presence in the home.

One of the questions guiding this study is that of utilizing findings from the Yoruba sample to address the Human Factor problem regarding paternal presence in the home. Human Factor Problem (HFP) has been described as those human elements, for e.g. irresponsibility, lack of commitment, non-chalant attitude, that thwart efficiency, progress and well-being of the individual and others. Central to the notion of responsible fatherhood are certain issues, namely, economic responsibilities, style of interaction, relationship with the mother, and personal involvement with the child (Doherty, Kouneski, & Erickson, 1996). In the following section, I examine how factors like occupation, economic contribution, and education can be applied to foster responsible fatherhood.

A major role of fathers across cultures is that of the breadwinner role of the father. The breadwinner role has a profound impact on the well being of the whole family (Blankenhorn, 1995; Pruett, 1996). For a man to adequately provide for his family, he must have a job or have necessary skills to perform a job (Engle & Breaux, 1994; Evans, 1994; Furstenburg, 1995). In addition, having the right attitude, a sense of commitment, and responsibility are crucial. It follows then that if we are to make the best out of the father’s breadwinner role, we will need to provide programs that train and provide access to good paying jobs (Furstenburg, 1995). A system that rewards positive attitude and responsibility in the work place is beneficial to men’s self – esteem and complements paternal involvement. Does this then mean that if the government and other private business offer fathers good paying jobs that enabled them to "take care" of their families, more fathers will then live in the home? This is a question research is yet to address. However, some researchers suggest that whether fathers are employed or not, as long as they do not feel helpless about their job situation, they are more sensitive to their children (Furstenberg, 1995; Radin & Harold - Goldsmith, 1989).

Research suggests the importance of educating fathers about the importance of what they do and who they are in children’s lives (Evans, 1994; Ogunnaike, 1997). Providing materials on child development in different languages, organizing lectures and seminars through churches, mosques, and synagogues is emphasized. More importantly, fathers should be supported in their bid to become educated about their children and families. To do this, job policy should allow time and incentives for fathers to attend free classes or and training seminars on fathering and how fathers can adjust to changing norms and values. Also, "crisis centers" or "counseling hotlines" should be provided for men who feel unsure or inadequate about their fathering roles.

In addition, recruiting and training men in professions that are predominantly female (e.g. social work, teaching, nursing) should be encouraged and rewarded (Lamb, Russell, & Sagi, 1983).

This aspect is a very sensitive issue in the lives of families, because it has implications for policy decisions and paternal interaction with families (Blankenhorn, 1995). As such, deliberating on economic role of fathers requires much prudence and sensitivity. Research suggests that poverty and insufficient economic resources affect the growth and well being of children (Engle, 1993; Ricciuti & Scarr, 1990). Thus, efforts in helping fathers to realize how important their resources are to the well being of their families should be undertaken. For example, providing free financial counseling or advice and financial mentoring opportunities is a worthwhile investment.

I feel that having a general reawakening to the role of fatherhood in a society is critical in building a viable 21st century. Men, especially fathers, play a significant and profound role in the lives of children. There is increasing evidence that suggest that when fathers live at home with the family, they have a positive impact on the physical, social, emotional, and psychological development of their children. Nonetheless, changing societal expectations, lack of role models for fathers, economic and political challenges, and family disintegration have complicated the role of the father in both western and nonwestern societies. As such, to reinstate the role and positions of fathers, there is need for effective policies, but more importantly, provision of adequate training and education for men in the areas of responsibility, commitment, and accountability. The importance of educating men in various positions of power about the importance of the early years is also stressed. Helping men to become a part of the daily lives of their families, teaching them to engage in meaningful relationships as a father, husband, and friend, and rewarding their efforts will also enrich the meaning of fatherhood and the extent to which fathers embrace their responsibilities.

Apart from the above suggestions, we could also learn more about paternal commitment from other cultures e.g. Aka Pygmies in Central Africa. The level of commitment of the Aka father to his family is reflected in his interest and cooperation with the mother. Sharing, togetherness, cooperation, respect, and reciprocity are some qualities that reflect what goes on in Aka families. These traits can be modeled by western and non - western societies in building healthy families.

In his book "Fatherless America: Confronting our most urgent social problem", Blankenhorn (1995) commented on the fragmentation and destruction of fatherhood in the U.S. Problems such as bias, faithlessness, and lack of respect for fathers or adult males are rampant and endemic. He suggested educating the public about the father’s role through positive role models in the media, increased maternal support, and availability of opportunities for fathers to practice fathering skills. Policies are good but grassroot action - oriented programs and initiatives in fatherhood are more expedient. Programs that provide modeling opportunities, accountability, viable marital relationships, and deal with economic challenges such as employment, money management are needed to promote responsible fatherhood (Doherty et al., 1996).

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