Technology in Interpretation

Readings: Guidelines for Computer Education   

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            Throughout the nation, educators and school officials are realizing the need to integrate computer training into the curriculum.  The development of computer education standards for schools is becoming widespread.  Computers are an integral component of society and in many professions proficient computer skills are essential for success.  Since the widespread appearance of computer standards is a recent phenomenon, many college and university students do not have the skills that their younger counterparts are learning in school.  A review of the current local, state, and national computer education standards will provide valuable guidance in designing interpretive technology courses.

   The Beginnings

   Modern Objectives and Standards

   Students in a Digital Age

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The beginnings

            The computer revolution truly started in 1976 when Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, two college undergraduates, built the first Apple computer (Poole, 1995).  Although large companies and researchers used computers before this time, the Apple computer was the first affordable machine that families, schools, and small businesses could purchase.  One year after its creation, a second generation of Apple computers, the Apple II, was born.  Demand for the computers skyrocketed in 1978 when a software application was created to help businesses simplify their financial records and reports.  From the onset, Apple marketed its computers to schools.  Realizing the value of computers in the classroom, the Apple Computer Corporation provided grants for the purchase of equipment.  In the early to mid-eighties, schools around the country purchased Apple II computers to help teach their students (Poole, 1995). 

            Few people in 1980 (at the very beginning of the revolution) believed that computers skills should be taught in the schools.  In 1983, just three years later, the National Commission on Excellence in Education created a report entitled “A Nation at Risk.”  The report focused on shortcomings of the education system in America.  These deficiencies were considered especially serious due to the increasing use of technology in the workplace.  The following list from the report describes the status in 1983:

• “Computers and computer-controlled equipment are penetrating every aspect of our lives--homes, factories, and offices.
• One estimate indicates that by the turn of the century millions of jobs will involve laser technology and robotics.
• Technology is radically transforming a host of other occupations. They include health care, medical science, energy production, food processing, construction, and the building, repair, and maintenance of sophisticated scientific, educational, military, and industrial equipment” (NCEE, 1983).

To overcome the inadequacy of computer skills training, the commission recommended that high school graduation requirements be strengthened to include the “Five New Basics:” English, mathematics, science, social studies, and computer science.  Whereas three years prior computer training was seen as non-essential, this report elevated computer skills to the same level as the traditional skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic.  The first guidelines for teaching computers in schools were introduced by this report.  “The teaching of computer science in high school should equip graduates to: (a) understand the computer as an information, computation, and communication device; (b) use the computer in the study of the other Basics and for personal and work-related purposes; and (c) understand the world of computers, electronics, and related technologies” (NCEE, 1983). 

Partially due to the National Commission on Excellence in Education report, the U.S. Department of Education was concerned about assessing the potential learning from the new technology being incorporated into schools.  In 1986, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) published a booklet entitled, A Framework for Assessing Computer Competence: Defining Objectives.  The objectives were to be used as a guide for accomplishing the first national assessment of computer competence.  By working with professionals, teachers, school staff, parents, and concerned citizens, NAEP hoped to “reflect accurately the national expectations for students’ ability to use computers” (NAEP, 1986). 

The NAEP booklet defines computer competence as “exposure to computing that enables them [students] both to experience the power of computing and to use that power to solve significant and interesting problems” (1986).  The objectives for computer learning were split into three different categories (NAEP, 1986):  

1.      Computer applications

·        Assess students’ ability to use programs that other people have written.

·        Applications in word processing, database management, lab instrumentation, telecommunications, graphics, music generation, spreadsheets, models and simulations.

2.      Computer science: Programming

·        Provides a framework for expressing ideas about processes and methodology.  Assess students’ ability to understand and use a programming language.

·        Languages include BASIC, Logo, and Pascal.

3.      Knowledge and attitudes

·        Assess student’s understanding of how a computer operates and what the functions of major components are. 

·        Assess student’s understanding of the ways in which modern technology is transforming society. 

·        Assess students’ attitudes toward computers and computing (may have a link to variations in performance).

These objectives were the first attempt at a national standardization for computer skills education and serve as a foundation for modern-day thinking.

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Modern Objectives and Standards

            Interestingly, despite computer skills being elevated to one of the “New Basic Skills,” NAEP has not assessed computer competence since the report in 1986 (NAEP, 2001).  Literature addressing modern computer skills training reveals a wide range of methodology, standards, and objectives.  Organizations such as the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) are working with teachers and specialists to formulate standardized teaching objectives.  Through the National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) Project, ISTE is working to “define standards for students, integrating curriculum technology, technology support, and standards for student assessment and evaluation of technology use” (ISTE, 2002). 

            Whereas NAEP separated computer learning into three categories, the NETS project has identified six categories of standards:

1. “Basic operations and concepts

·        Demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature and operation of technology systems.

·        Proficient in the use of technology.

2. “Social, ethical, and human issues

·        Understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology.

·        Practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software.

·        Develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity.

3. “Technology productivity tools

·        Use technology tools to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity.

·        Use productivity tools to collaborate in constructing technology-enhanced models, prepare publications, and produce other creative works.

4. “Technology communications tools

·        Use telecommunications to collaborate, publish, and interact with peers, experts, and other audiences.

·        Use a variety of media and formats to communicate information and ideas effectively to multiple audiences.

5. “Technology research tools

·        Use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources.

·        Use technology tools to process data and report results.

·        Evaluate and select new information resources and technological innovations based on the appropriateness for specific tasks.

6. “Technology problem-solving and decision-making tools

·        Use technology resources for solving problems and making informed decisions.

·        Employ technology in the development of strategies for solving problems in the real world” (ISTE, 2002).

These six categories of standards represent the most current attempt to develop national guidelines for teaching computer skills.  The Interpretive Technology Project will strive to follow these standards when developing technology lesson plans and courses.  To facilitate the incorporation of these standards into the classroom, the Delaware Center for Educational Technology created a “Computer Skills Growth Chart” based on the NETS project, Delaware Content Standards and Performance Indicators, and the Delaware computer skills graduation requirement (DCET, 2000/2001).  The easy-to-understand table lists specific skill requirements divided into grade levels and categories (see Table 1). 

            National standards are seldom discussed within a university curriculum.  However, computers have become such an integral part of society, students graduating from a university should have the technological skills necessary to succeed in their chosen professions.  By reviewing the current status of computer skills standards, the interpretive course modules can be tailored to include important skills that students are currently or will be expected to know. 

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Students in a Digital Age

            Students that have grown up in the Digital Age are different from students in the past.  Not only do these students learn about the fundamentals of computers at an early age, but they are also bombarded socially and mentally by a flurry of technological “necessities.”  Commercials advertise the need to stay in touch at all times through cell phones, e-mail, and pagers.  Complex and visually stimulating video games keep many young people glued to television and computer screens.  The World Wide Web has transformed research and learning.  Instead of finding a few pages on a topic in an encyclopedia, students search the Internet to discover hundreds or thousands of articles on a topic that are dressed up with pictures, sounds, and videos.  Digital Video Discs (DVD’s) are replacing videotapes, and digital cameras are replacing traditional film.  This “Digital Generation” of students has an entirely different set of expectations and personalities that can make teaching a challenge.

            John Seely Brown, the chief scientist of Xerox and director of its Palo Alto Research Center, believes that the Internet is as fundamental to society as the discovery of electricity (2000).  According to his article, “Growing Up Digital,” the World Wide Web is only in its early forms and major advances in the future will change every aspect of our lives.  Through his work at the research center, Brown has identified several dimensional shifts that are having a major impact on the lives of youth. 

            First, students are acquiring a different type of literacy.  Traditionally, literacy refers to the ability to read words.  Literacy in the Digital Age involves not only words, but also image and screen literacy.  The ability to comfortably navigate through confusing and complex information may take precedence over traditional literacy (Brown, 2000).  The second dimension shift is one towards discovery-based learning, instead of the traditional formal and authority-based teaching.  The Internet provides endless opportunities for personal growth and learning (Brown, 2000). 

            The third shift is an emphasis on concrete reasoning.  Traditionally, reasoning has dealt with deduction and the abstract.  However, students working with digital media tend to have logic that is more concrete; they need to start with something real (an object, document, or code) and use that tangible to build values and importance.  This type of reasoning is called Bricolage (Brown, 2000).  The final shift that Brown reports is a bias toward action.  Students that grow up in the Digital Age tend to have fewer inhibitions about trying new things.  Other individuals might shy away from unfamiliar applications or machines, but students of the Digital Age watch others and try it for themselves (Brown, 2000). 

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